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9 
t 


DESIGN FOR A SMALL MUSEUM. 


MANUAL _ 
FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


BY 


LAURENCE VAIL COLEMAN 


EXECUTIVE SECRETARY OF 
THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF MUSEUMS 


With 32 “Plates 


G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS 
NEW YORK— LONDON 


1927 


waht ‘a ©, ne 
+ ‘ i , “ ‘ 5 . 

; # ¥ re ae tices ; , 

; Atha 
, ip 1 

- ¥ 

4 ~ x 


Jd, et ge ee ais ase 
Laurence Vail Coleman 


Copyright 1927 bs 


PREFACE 


Tuls book is intended for the use of those who set about 
to found museums or to build up small museums now 
existing. ‘The writing of it has been prompted by obser- 
vation of the rapid growth of interest in museum-making 
and the hindrance or Hoke: of many efforts through lack 
of information. 

There are certain possible misapprehensions as to pur- 
pose which may be forestalled. First, no brief is held for 
joint treatment of history, art and science. Second, stand- 
ardization is not contemplated. ‘The real aims in these 
two respects are stated in the first chapter. Third, no 
visionary or untried schemes are advocated. Fourth, the 
various suggested plans, in simplest form, are not too 
ponderous for any small museum. 

Much of the material has been gathered during the past 
two years in the course of travels over fifteen thousand 
miles from border to border of the country and from 
coast to coast. Hundreds of museums have been stud- 
ied and their work interpreted on the basis of extensive 
reading and practical experience with five institutions. 

For opportunity to create the book as a part of official 
duties, I am indebted to The American Association of 
Museums which has its headquarters at the Smithsonian 
Institution. The work has been financed under grants 
made to the Association by The Carnegie Corporation of 
New York. 

To several persons I am happy to make acknowledg- 
ment of assistance. Paul Marshall Rea and Frederic 
Allen Whiting, both of Cleveland, have read the manu- 
script and made many valuable suggestions. Mr. Rea 
has been exceedingly generous in helping with the chap- 

111 


iv PREFACE 


ters on finance. To William E. Hannan, Legislative 
Librarian of the State of New York, and to Edward W. 
Stitt, Jr., of New York City, I am indebted for legal 
advice. Edgar A. Josselyn has made the frontispiece and 
other architectural sketches which are reproduced. 
Ralph Hayes, Frederic A. Lucas and Harry C. Beers, of 
New York City, and Rossiter Howard, of Cleveland, have 
also helped with counsel. 

It was my first intention to give specific credit for many 
of the ideas which are developed in these chapters, but 
the task was found to involve too many delicate problems 
relating to priority. In general, however, I make grate- 
ful acknowledgment to the many friends who have en- 
tertained the journeying observer and given willingly of 
their thoughts. 


Lie Nee 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER 
I.—SMALL MUSEUMS 


II.—Tue Museum FIELD 
III.—TuHE PurRPOsSE oF MUSEUMS 


FIRST PART 
ORGANIZATION 
IV.—GETTING STARTED . 
V.—THE NAME 
VI.—ORGANIZATION 
VII.—THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 
VIII.—THE DIRECTOR 
IX.—THE STAFF 
X.—THE MEMBERSHIP . 
XI.—THE WOMEN’S AUXILIARY 
XIJ.—CoOPERATING ORGANIZATIONS 


SECOND PART 
ADMINISTRATION 


XIII.—PERSONNEL RELATIONS . 


XIV.—INCOME 
XV.—EXPENDITURE 
XVI.—PLANT 


XVII.—ENDOWMENT 


PAGE 


vi CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


XVIII.—AccouNnTs . ; ‘ 
XIX.—OFrFICE METHODS . 
XX.— PROGRAM 
XXI.—TEMPORARY QUARTERS 


THIRD PART 
CURATORIAL WORK 
XXII.—AccCESSION POLICIES 
X XITI.—THE STUDY COLLECTIONS 
XXIV.—THE EXHIBITS 
XX V.— OUTDOOR EXHIBITS 
XXVI.—THE LENDING COLLECTION . 
XX VII.— HistToRY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 
XX VIII.—ART COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 
XXIX.—ScIENCE COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 
XX X.—COLLECTING 
XX XI.—MuvsEuM RECORDS 
XX XII.— NUMBERING AND TAGGING 
XX XITI.—PREPARATION 
XX XIV.—HOvUSING THE STUDY COLLECTIONS . 
XXXV.—EXHIBITION CASES 
XXXVI.—INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 
XXX VIT.—LABELING 
XXXVIII.—MusEuM GROUPS . 


FOURTH PART 
EDUCATIONAL WORK 
XXXIX.—THE Museum AT WorK 
XL.—ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 


PAGE 


88 
109 
112 
115 


121 
127 
131 
136 
140 
147 
161 
166 
I7I 
173 
184 
187 
195 
198 
209 
20% 


232 


241 


246 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


XLI.—SCHOOL-SERVICE . : - 
XLII.— ADULT EDUCATION 
XLIITI.—TuHE Museum LIBRARY . 
XLIV.—PUuBLICATIONS 
XLV.—PUBLICITY 
XLVI.—CAMPAIGNS 


FIFTH PART 
RESEARCH 


XLVII.—THE SMALL MUSEUM IN RESEARCH 


SIXTH PART 
BUILDING 
XLVIII.—PREPARING TO BUILD 
XLIX.—SMALL Museum BUILDINGS 
L.—ADAPTABLE BUILDING PLANS . 
LI.—INTERIOR AND EQUIPMENT 


CONCLUSION 


LII.—THE OUTLOOK 


APPENDICES 
A.— CHARTER 
B.—CONSTITUTION AND By-Laws 
C.—CONTRACT WITH LOCAL GOVERNMENT 
D.—STATE Laws AFFECTING MUSEUM SUPPORT 
E.—DEALERS IN REPRODUCTIONS 
F.—DIRECTORIES OF MUSEUMS 
G.—GENERAL REFERENCES 


INDEX 


Vil 
PAGE 
255 
260 
264 
269 
276 


281 


291 


323 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


DESIGN FOR A SMALL MusEuUM ; : Frontts ptece 


PLATE 
NUMBER 


I.—SANTA BARBARA Museum OF NATURAL HIsTory . 
2.—MontTcLairR ART MUSEUM. 

3.—STATEN ISLAND PUBLIC MUSEUM 

4. Lippy Museum, WoLFesoro, N. H. 
5.—SOUTHWEST MusEum, Los ANGELES . 

6. FoLLow-Up STAMPS AND THEIR USE . 


7.—THE BROOKLYN CHILDREN’S MUSEUM, WHICH 
HAs ESTABLISHED ITSELF IN A RESIDENCE . 


8.—BRITTON CoTTAGE—A 17TH CENTURY HOME 
MAINTAINED BY THE STATEN ISLAND INSTI- 
TUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 


9A.—A LENDING SET FOR CLASSROOM USE ILLUSTRAT- 
ING THE HISTORY OF PAPER 
Courtesy of Erie Public Museum. 


9B.—FILE OF PICTURES IN A LENDING COLLECTION 
Courtesy of The Newark Museum. 


10.—METAL PILING UNIT FOR STANDARD TRAYS ? 
Courtesy of The Van Dorn Iron Works Company. 


I11.—TRAYS AND RACK FOR ACCOMMODATION OF STUDY 
COLLECTION MATERIAL 


12A.—WALL CASE OF SIZE PROPOSED AS STANDARD 


1X 


FACING 
PAGE 


6 
16 


136 
142 


142 


192 


196 
198 


x ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE 
NUMBER 


12B.—WALL CASE WITH METAL FRAME AND Woop 
SoLip BASE ; ‘ : : ; 
Courtesy of The Newark Museum. 


13A.—CENTER CASE OF SIZE PROPOSED AS STANDARD 


13B.—CENTER CASE wITtH Woop FRAME AND LEG 
BASE. ; : ; 
Courtesy of The American Museum of Natit History. 


14A.—TABLE CASE OF SIZE PROPOSED AS STANDARD . 


14B.—TABLE CASE WITH METAL FRAME AND Woop 
LEG BASE 
Courtesy of Library Bureau Division, Rand Kardex Corp’n. 


15A.—MOLDINGS AND JOINTS FOR Woop CASE FRAME 


15B.—SECTIONAL PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF TABLE 
CASE WITH WooD FRAME . ; ‘ : 


16.—SECTIONAL PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF WALL CASE. 
For CENTER CASE THE VEHISOTE BACK IS RE- 
PLACED BY A SASH AS AT FRONT 


17.—SIMPLE MOUNTING FOR SWINGING SCREENS ; 


18.—AN ExHIBIT INSTALLED PRIMARILY FOR PLEASING 
EFFECT : . k ; 
Courtesy of The Meee Museum of res 


19.—AN EXHIBIT INSTALLED PRIMARILY TO CONVEY 
INFORMATION 
Courtesy of Museum of Natural ie: Usbeue IL 


20.—SMALL GROUP WITH INDIVIDUAL FLOOR CASE . 
Courtesy of American Red Cross Museum. 


21A.—SMALL GROUP WITH PORTABLE CASE FOR EX- 
HIBITION OR LENDING ; ; : 
Courtesy of The American Museum of Naiaae History. 


21B.—Groups INSTALLED IN SERIES : : 
Courtesy of Natural History Museum, San Diego. 


PAGE 
198 
200 
200 
202 
202 
204 
204 
206 


208 


212 


218 


232 


234 


ce 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE 
NUMBER 


22A.—PRIMITIVE TRADE—A SMALL GROUP BY DWIGHT 
FRANKLIN , ; : ; : 
Courtesy of The Cleveland Museum of Art. 


22B.—THE COTTON FIELD—ANOTHER GROUP WITH 
MINIATURE FIGURES d 
Courtesy of Milwaukee Public Museum. 


23.—COLONIAL KITCHEN—A PERIOD ROOM : 
Courtesy of Oakland Public Museum. 


24.—A MusEuM GAME IN PROGRESS ; : 5 
Courtesy of Buffalo Museum of Science. 


25.—MOobDEs OF ENLARGING A BUILDING . : 


26.—First FLooR PLANS FOR SMALL MUSEUM 
BUILDINGS : f ; j 


27.—BASEMENT PLANS FOR SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS. 
28.—PLAN OF PLATE 26-A IN DETAIL : : 
29.—PLAN OF PLATE 27-A IN DETAIL : : . 
30.—STAGES OF BUILDING EXPANSION ; : : 


31.—DESIGN FOR THE FINISHED BUILDING : : 


X1 
FACING 
PAGE 


236 


236 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES 


SUBJECT PAGE. 
OuTDOOR EXHIBITS . een ; : . eh 30 
THE LENDING COLLECTION ; ; : : tao 
History COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS ; . 158, 160 
ArT COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS : : : Sat OS 
SCIENCE COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS : : - 5r70 
COLLECTING. : : ; : : ‘ eae yk: 
PREPARATION . , : : : : : AS 
HOUSING THE STUDY COLLECTIONS . : : . 197 
EXHIBITION CASES . : ; : : : av 208 
INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS : ; : ; eee Pa 
LABELING 3 ; ; ; : : : ane Sf 
MusEuM GROUPS . . ; ‘ : : eae 
THE MusEuUM AT WoRK . : ; : : . 245 
ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN : F : ; ete 
SCHOOL-SERVICE A : : ; : ; e2kO 
THE MusEUM LIBRARY . : : 2 ; an 207 
PUBLICATIONS . ; ‘ : ; “ ; eee! 
PUBLICITY : : : ; : ; a2 80 


CAMPAIGNS A ‘ A : : : : . 288 


xiil 


XiV BIBLIOGRAPHIES 


SUBJECT 


THE SMALL MusEUM IN RESEARCH . 
PREPARING TO BUILD 

INTERIOR AND EQUIPMENT 
DIRECTORIES OF MUSEUMS 


GENERAL REFERENCES 


PAGE 
294 
300 
320 
384 
385 


FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 
INTRODUCTION ee 


I 
SMALL MUSEUMS 


THERE are a thousand museums in the United States 
and nine of them in every ten are small. Of the small 
museums nearly half belong to colleges or universities; 
the others are the small museums to which this Manual 
is specifically addressed. They are devoted to history, 
art or science, or a combination of these subjects. Many 
of them are adjuncts of libraries or historical societies, 
but others are independently established. They are to 
be found, for the most part, in communities of fewer 
than fifty thousand inhabitants—there being some in 
every state, but the greatest number in the East and 
Middle West. Locally they are looked upon with pride 
and, despite the slenderness of their means, hopes are 
commonly entertained for their development. 

Many of these museums are administered ineffectively; 
many are collections or exhibits, and no more; some are 
in so deplorable a state that they have little usefulness 
and tend to bring discredit upon museums generally. On 
the other hand, many of them are active institutions oper- 
ated for the public good and supported by the people. 

For the past few years, there has been evidence of new 
interest in museums and of corresponding new activity 
in the movement. Moribund museums are taking up 
the methods of the active ones, and are entering upon 
careers. Progressive institutions are developing at accel- 
erated pace. New museums are coming into being in 
surprising numbers. ‘The press and other mirrors of the 
public mind reflect added interest in museums and new 
support for them in every quarter. 

Whether or not this awakening is to produce small mu- 

3 


4 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


seums of real individual worth and great aggregate import- 
ance must depend upon the extent to which the lessons 
of museum experience are applied. The fund of practi- 
cal information upon which any museum may draw has 
been derived from the experience of museums, large 
and small—of museums devoted to each branch of the 
field. Certain principles are the same for all. Differ- 
ences in scale of activity are accompanied naturally by 
gradations in elaborateness of method, and differences in 
subject matter are responsible necessarily for variety 
of method, but the same broad fundamentals underlie — 
the work of all effective museums. This does not indicate 
standardization; it shows response to the laws of things 
as they are, and it provides firm foundation for expression 
of individuality. In the chapters that follow an attempt 
‘5 made to state fundamentals, and to show how they 
may be worked out progressively from the simplest begin- 
nings, and how applied in each branch of the museum- 
field. 

Most museums are devoted to only one subject—either 
history, art or science, but there are many which embrace 
two or all three. Ideally the three subjects are repre- 
sented by three separate museums in a locality, but this 
is a practicable plan only for a large city where there are 
resources to finance it. Ina small place, three museums 
cannot be supported properly as a rule, and the only 
means of developing a full range of museum advantages 
appears to be treatment of the three subjects by one 
institution—a general museum. 

Not all general museums have begun with the entire 
field which they now cover; usually one subject has 
been taken up at a time. In most instances, history has 
made the first appeal because pride of ancestry, esteem of 
place, interest in antiquities and love of days gone by 
contribute to an interest that is strong and universal. 


SMALL MUSEUMS § 


In many places science has come next, because people 
love the out-of-doors and are curious about wild creatures. 
Until recently art interest has inclined to lag, because art 
is commonly regarded as a costly and highly sublimated 
concern. The sequence of stages has been different, 
however, in the development of many general museums 
—art or science having caught interest first. 

It is the purpose of this Manual not to urge co-treat- 
ment of all three subjects by each small museum, but 
rather to cover the full gamut of museum problems in 
the most direct way, namely that of discussing the affairs 
of general museums. ‘This course avoids the duplication 
that would result from an attempt to treat museums of 
each kind separately. The idea of a general museum, 
therefore, is an accessory to this account, but none the 
less it is felt that the number of small general museums 
will increase greatly as time goes on. 


II 
THE MUSEUM FIELD 


Ir is no matter of accident that the museum field 
includes history, art and science. These subjects, being 
represented by objects in the world about us, are the ones 
that are susceptible of museum treatment. Things which 
man has made and used, and which therefore are the 
tangible evidences of his ways of living or his acts, are 
known collectively as culture material to the specialist, 
but they are the materials of history—employing that 
term in the broad sense which historians now adopt and 
- which H. G. Wells has made so popular. Any of these 
objects that are beautiful are works of art. The natural 
objects which surround us, and which are differentiated 
from those of history and art by the fact that man has 
not engaged in their creation,’ are the materials of sci- 
ence—that is, of natural science, or natural history. 

Museums of history collect artifacts of prehistoric 
peoples, and implements, apparel and other materials 
representing historic cultures—ancient and modern, prim- 
itive and advanced. Some have only objects which illumi- 
nate the chronology of events regarded formerly as the 
pith of history, but others, delving into archeology and 
ethnology, encompass the whole story of mankind. ‘This 
breadth of view leads to interpretation of our own his- 
tory in terms of our manner of life as well as the acts of 
our soldiers and statesmen. History collections, there- 
fore, may properly be made up of selections from every 
class of thing that is man-made. 

Museums of art are interested in more than the major 
arts: architecture, sculpture, painting and drawing. 

t For qualification of this statement, read on. 

6 


SANTA BARBARA MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


THE MUSEUM FIELD 7 


Many collections include ceramics, textiles and work in 
wood, metal and other materials; and recent years have 
witnessed the admission of jewelry, glassware, china, 
silverware, furniture, wall paper and other products of 
industrial art to museums which once recognized only 
paintings and sculpture. Art is the expression of man’s 
sense of beauty. Every article that has ever been made 
to be beautiful is a work of art, but art museums usually 
interest themselves only with those objects which have 
high esthetic quality. 

Museums of science are concerned with living things, 
and also with the earth—the stage upon which the drama 
of lifeisenacted. Astronomy may be represented by very 
limited material, but rocks and minerals, plants and ani- 
mals make up the bulk of collections. Man, as one of 
the living creatures, naturally receives attention, but 
many science museums do not stop here. In addition 
to the anatomical materials of physical anthropology, 
they collect artifacts and undertake a broad treatment 
of anthropology which carries them into archzology and 
ethnology. 

Each of the three main branches of the museum field 
is sharply differentiated from the others in point of view, 
but as indicated, collections made to illustrate them are 
apt to have many objects in common. ‘The possibility 
of duplication is greatest in connection with prehistoric 
and primitive culture material. This material is inti- 
mately related to history; it is capable of scientific in- 
terpretation; much ofit ranksasart. There is ground for 
some difference of opinion as to whether it is susceptible 
of fullest interpretation in relation to history or to science. 
In this Manual it is regarded as material of history be- 
cause this treatment is in harmony with an increasing 
tendency on the part of historical commissions, mu- 
seums of history and other agencies to view history in 


8 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


its broadest aspect as including archeology and eth- 
nology. 

In a small general museum which undertakes to em- 
brace the three fields, more or less arbitrary division of 
subject matter is necessary, and the scheme presented 
here, though only one of the possibilities, is sound and 
workable. However, if history, art and science are the 
respective fields of separate museums, a certain amount 
of culture material may properly be included in all of 
them and treated by each in its own way. 

In addition to the three main museum subjects, there 
are numberless special ones which are branches of his- 
tory, art or science. Hence there are museums devoted 
to the history of an individual, of a city, of a nation, of a 
war, of a period or of some trait that has run the whole 
course of history—lighting or transportation, for example. 
There are museums devoted to the art of one man, of a 
nation, of a period or of some one kind of art expression 
from its beginning. There are museums devoted to the 
science of the earth, of plants, of animals or of some one 
group of plants or animals. | 

There are also museum subjects which are combinations 
of related branches of history, art and science. Industry, 
the most important of such composite subjects, includes 
some of history in connection with industrial growth, 
some of art in relation to zsthetic quality of certain 
products and some of science in that technical processes 
are concerned. Industry is so important'—and has re- 
ceived so much attention from museums, especially abroad 
—that it may be regarded as almost a fourth subject, 
despite the fact that upon analysis it is resolved into the 
basic three. However, a small museum which deals with 
other subjects can hardly treat industry so intensively. 

Sometimes it is asked how any museum which covers 
more than a limited specialty can possibly be small. 


THE MUSEUM FIELD 9 


This question springs from the idea that all is grist to a 
museum’s mill—a misconception that succeeding chapters 
should dispel. Wide range of subject-matter does not 
necessarily imply abundance of material. The truth is 
that only a liberally supported museum can attain to 
size without becoming mired in its own possessions. 


III 
THE PURPOSE OF MUSEUMS 


MAN today gets food and clothing, pleasures and ideas 
at second hand. He is not forced to call upon the full 
powers with which nature has endowed him for self pres- 
ervation, for enjoyment or for independent thought, and 
therefore he is making functional curtailments. Among 
| the activities that are being dropped, is observation. 
_ Man tends to take from books his notions “of the | world 
| about him. ae 
_ Museums help to counteract this drift; they collect 
\ objects to be seen, and invoke observation ar them. Since 
they are concerned with things the function commonly 
ascribed to museums is that of the ware-house, and to be 
sure, every museum does necessarily expend a large part 
of its energy in collecting objects and preserving them. 
But after all, collections are only means to certain ends. 
The ultimate purpose of museums is to raise the general 
level of refinement by giving pleasure and imparting 
knowledge. Since each institution addresses itself to the 
entire population in its community, it does not ordinarily 
have great effect upon the individual, but its aggregate 
influence upon the mass may be large. The keynote of 
the work is public service. The so-called public museum, 
which derives support from the people and recognizes its 
duty of service to the people is of the dominant and 
most promising type at the present time. 

Museum material is largely of such character as to 
reward careful study; this moves students to make use 
of it for research, and induces many of them to engage 
permanently in museum work. Research is a major con- 

Io 


THE PURPOSE OF MUSEUMS II 


cern of large museums whose collections are extensive and 
important, but most small museums find limited oppor- 
tunity in this line of effort. In general, however, a nat- 
ural balance between scholarship and educational activity 
is prerequisite to continued growth and vitality of a 
museum. 

The educational work of museums is carried on by a 


serenctminn 


variety of m¢ methods which years of experimentation on the 

‘part 0 of m many institutions have brought clearly into view. 
The technique i is based on the use of objects to convey 
impressions. ‘through the eye, and it applies the principles 
of visual instruction. 

~The function _ of imparting | knowledge goes hand in 
hand with at another—that of giving pleasure. Museums of 
art are sometimes thought to be only secondarily con- 
cerned with education, and museums of history and of 
science are often regarded as solely intellectual in their 
appeal, but in truth the emotions quite as well as the 
intellect may be reached by all museums. ‘There would 
seem to be a sound view in the statement that museums 
exist “to give opportunity for enjoyment . . . to those 
who seek enjoyment, and to give opportunity for study 

. to those who seek knowledge.” 

There is also an important recreational etistas in all 
museum effort. Doing what one must is work; doing 
what one wants is play. By virtue of the fact that rela- 
tions with museums are voluntary ones, they are recrea- 
tional, and therein lies their greatest power. Visitors 
to exhibition halls, children who come to museum story- 
hours, boys and girls who take field trips and who join 
study-clubs, adults who attend lectures or who register 
for instruction—all are moved by their own desires. 
Museums therefore find their devotees in most receptive 
mood and this fact may be responsible in no small part 
for whatever truth there is in the assertion that “‘hour 


12 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


for hour, museums are able to give more than any one of 
the great universities.” 

Through the work of a museum people may be led to 
intelligent understanding of our past and of other peoples 
and their past, and upon this knowledge they may build 
keener interest in the future. They may come to think 
of history, not as dull, but as scintillating with the inspira- 
tion of biography and the fascination of romance. 

Through the work of a museum people may be led to 
appreciation and enjoyment of the beautiful. They may 
learn to choose tasteful things with which to surround 
themselves, to enjoy true elegance and to express it in 
their daily lives by refined adornment of their persons, 
their homes and their communities. 

Through the work of a museum people may be led to 
understanding of the world of nature. They may find 
satisfaction in knowing more about the earth and the 
living things upon it. They may learn greater love for 
the out-of-doors and so become more staunch protectors of 
the country’s natural resources, and they may acquire 
happier and more sympathetic outlook upon science in 
its reverent search for truth. 

Toward these ends museums move. Some are widely 
influential, but each one, however small, may do its part 
in its own sphere. In fact, small museums have special 
opportunities because in small communities, where most 
of them are found, so few facilities are offered for escape 
from the monotony and meaninglessness of plain existence. 


a PART | 
ORGANIZATION | | | 


Sa 


IV 


SETTING STARTED 


No two museums are established in exactly the same 
way, but almost every museum owes its origin to the 
initiative of so some one person whose enthusiasm spreads 
‘until a ‘sufficient. number. of people become interested. 
"The degree of success which attends each undertaking is 
determined in part by the energy and ability of its pro- 
moters and in part by their knowledge of the experience 
of others who have labored successfully with museums, 
large and small. Copying mistakes is a common but 
unfruitful practice; profiting by the experience of others 
though a more exacting task, is worth the effort. 

At the outset, it seems to be essential that the leader 
in each museum enterprise have a clear notion of the 
place which he individually is best fitted to fill in the 
organization. This requires that he define his own 
motives and have knowledge of the various parts which 
may be played. At least he should decide whether he 
is to be associated with the movement as a volunteer, 
or to find in the prospective institution, work for which 
he will be paid. As subsequent chapters show, the oppor- 
tunities for volunteer activity are many—ranging from 
the presidency through various other official connections 
to unofficial service or support. ‘The chief salaried posi- 
tion is that of the director, and in a small museum it may 
remain the only salaried position for an indefinite period. 
No one but a specially trained person should hold this post. 
Apparently there is a common belief that anyone can run 
a museum, but a little observation will reveal the error 
of it. 

It is almost a prerequisite to success that every new 

15 


amie 


16 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


museum movement make its first public appearance under 
the leadership of someone who will be recognized as free 
from pecuniary interest in the plan, for if anyone seems 
to be trying to make himself a job, the project usually 
has a cool reception. This does not imply that a person 
with the qualifications to direct the work professionally 
and the enthusiasm to promote it must remain inactive. 
It does mean, however, that such a person may best work 
quietly until the necessary volunteer support is found. 
Perhaps the strongest leadership of all, during early 
stages, is that of one who has a collection to present or 
financial support to give, but who makes it plain that no 
memorial is sought and no desire entertained to exercise 
control. 

At an early stage, it is desirable that the interested 
group consult someone of experience in museum work in 
order to get a critical judgment of the local situation and 
to inquire into opportunities of finding a good director 
at the outset. Success depends largely upon trained 
direction during the formative period. In other chapters 
emphasis is laid upon the possibility of cooperation be- 
tween several museums in sharing the services of a direc- 
tor. This arrangement promises to be adopted increas- 
ingly in future, and it is believed to have advantages 
that much more than compensate for any difficulties which 
attach to it. 

Before an organization meeting is called, informal con- 
ferences are usually held. It is important that persons 
who are asked to join in such discussions be chosen with 
great care. Nota few institutions have been foreordained 
to failure by having drifted into the control of a wrong 
group. In fact, it is desirable that the promoters of any 
museum project inform themselves at an early juncture 
upon many of the subjects covered in this Manual, in order 
that pitfalls commonly encountered may be avoided. 


PLATE 2 


MONTCLAIR ART MUSEUM. 


GETTING STARTED 17 


When the actual work of founding begins, incorpora- 
tion papers should be prepared and a constitution and 
by-laws drafted. Reference to Appendices A and B 
should facilitate these undertakings. 

In determining upon the form of organization, ques- 
tions may arise as to relations between a museum and 
some other institution—perhaps a library or a historical 
society. Experience has shown clearly that a museum 
does not thrive as a subordinate activity under such 
auspices, but the fact remains that many museums start 
in this way where otherwise they might not be estab- 
lished. If independent museum management is not 
practicable, the best plan seems to be that of placing con- 
trol in the hands of a strong committee of library or other 
trustees with the idea that ultimately a separate board 
may be evolved. 

A major problem of promotion is that of finance. This 
solved, the services of a director may be secured and intri- 
cacies of program placed in professional hands. A mu- 
seum cannot be operated without funds. To build up 
initial support it is usually necessary for a few persons 
to give generously of money as well as time and thought. 
After the first few years, however, the burden may be 
distributed more widely by the development of a mem- 
bership and of public support. 

If it is found to be impossible at the start to raise funds 
for the salary of a director, an unpaid honorary director 
may be appointed, but it should be realized that under 
these conditions prospects almost invariably decline, and 
that after a museum becomes fixed in the public mind as 
an ineffective institution, nothing short of a spectacular 
reorganization can redeem it. The best course, there- 
fore, is to overcome financial obstacles at the first oppor- 
tunity. 

The problem of getting an inactive museum launched 


18 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


on a useful career is a difficult but not a hopeless one. 
Ordinarily three things are necessary: first, a president 
who can assume real leadership and tactfully replace 
‘‘dead wood”’ with useful supporters; second, a director 
who can give sound professional counsel and develop a 
project worth supporting; and third, a well advertised 
closing of the museum followed by a reopening with visual 
evidence in the exhibits that new policies are in force. 

An ever present menace to the success of any new 
endeavor is the person who insists that “‘in this town 
conditions are peculiar,’ and that, in consequence, it is 
not possible to follow the experience of others in similar 
undertakings. There is at least one respect in which all 
communities are alike: they are all peculiar. It is essen- 
tial that every museum have a leader who can apply 
sound principles under local conditions and achieve suc- 
cess despite peculiarities. 


V 
THE NAME 


THE name of a museum may advantageously include 
that of the locality, in order that it may serve in effect as 
an address, and also that it may appeal to local pride which 
tends to focus upon an institution bearing a local place- 
name. A common alternative is to honor a founder or 
patron, but this is generally regarded as a mistake. An 
institution named after an individual is bound to be asso- 
ciated in the public mind with that person or his heirs 
and to be regarded as somewhat of a private enterprise. 
Experience has shown the difficulty of developing sup- 
port for a museum so designated, and it is significant 
that there are instances of refusal on the part of broad 
minded benefactors to allow use of their names for just 
this reason. However, a building or a portion of a build- 
ing occupied by a museum may be known as a memorial 
to its donor without invoking difficulties which arise from 
so naming the institution in its corporate title. 

Museums render public service and many of them enjoy 
public support; therefore they are public institutions, 
even though as a rule they are privately controlled. To 
indicate this fact the designation Public Museum is 
commonly used in the name, and there are indications 
that the example will be followed increasingly. Library 
experience over a long period has shown the advantage of 
this practice, and it would seem, therefore, that the Erie 
Public Museum, the Milwaukee Public Museum, the 
Oakland Public Museum, the Oshkosh Public Museum, 
and the Reading Public Museum—to mention only a 
few—are aptly named. 

If it is desired to indicate the field of a museum, words 

19 


20 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


such as of History or of Art and Science may be appended. 
The term Natural History is employed instead of Science 
in many cases. 

Smithtown Public Museum of Art is apparently too long 
a name, however, since the form Smithtown Museum of 
Art is more common. If a museum is a general one, or 
may be such ultimately, it seems needless to specify: of 
History, Art and Science. One museum which is named 
in this way has adopted a shorter designation unofficially. 

It may be desired to incorporate The into the official 
name: The Smithtown Public Museum or The Smithtown 
Museum of History. ‘There are many precedents for this, 
but it seems rather cumbersome. 


VI 


ORGANIZATION 


THE various common forms of museum organization 
are survivals from successive periods of museum history 
in America. During a century and a half changing con- 
ditions have offered in succession several different sources 
of museum support and each has produced its own type 
of institution. The first museums were those of learned 
societies, brought into being to contribute to the knowl- 
edge of a new land. Another generation witnessed the 
establishment of museums in colleges where they served 
as laboratories of natural theology—precursor of the 
natural sciences. Still later when historical societies 
sprang up, historical collections were developed. With 
the increase of prosperity privately supported museums 
appeared—each ‘‘to do homage to the memory of a rich 
man’s hobby.’’ Museums of all these varieties are in 
existence at the present time, but only a few of them, 
by responding to new influences, have shaped themselves 
to meet conditions of the present day.* 

The modern type of museum, which has been termed 
the public museum, is a product of the past few decades 
and it is this type which gives greatest promise. Some 
of these public museums are controlled and financed 
wholly by government, either federal, state or local, 
but a majority of them are independent corporations 
which derive support in part from public funds and in 
part from contributions of individuals. This last plan is 


t The evolution of museum organization and support is reflected in the 
history of our oldest museum, as shown interestingly by Paul M. Rea: 
A contribution to early museum history in America. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. 
Museums, 1915, 9: 53-65. 

21 


22 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


considered to be the ideal one. Under it the museum cor- 
poration usually enters into contract with the city for 
tenure of public land, which may be in a park, and of a 
building, which may be specially erected with proceeds 
from the sale of city bonds. For maintenance of the 
property the museum receives an annual share of tax 
funds. With money secured from private sources the 
public museum develops its own working organization, 
makes collections and prepares exhibits. These enter- 
prises are collectively the basis for popular educational 
activity which is a public service, and for this purpose, 
therefore, the museum may receive further support from 
tax funds of the city, and also a share of county support 
if the work justifies it. Under this plan of finance.has 
come about the recent growth of museums in number and 
importance. 

It is essential that a public museum be incorporated 
in order that it may enter into contracts with govern- 
mental authorities, receive public funds and bequests, 
secure exemption from taxation and enjoy other rights 
under the law, as well as to extend proper personal protec- 
tion to its officers. Museums are incorporated without 
capital stock and not for profit. 

The body corporate in which property is vested may be 
a group of a dozen or more trustees who elect their own suc- 
cessors, or it may be a large group of members who elect 
trustees as their representatives to manage the museum. 
Both forms of organization are common and both are 
effective, but for a museum in a small city probably the 
latter, or democratic form, is the better, since it affords 
opportunity for many people to become closely associated 
with the museum by sharing responsibility for its manage- 
ment. In addition to the elective trustees, a museum 
which enjoys public support should have ex-officio trus- 
tees who are public officials. 


PLATE 3 


ts 
i 
i 
oof 
a 
i 
t 
i 


STATEN ISLAND PUBLIC MUSEUM. 


ORGANIZATION 23 


As explained later the board of trustees functions largely 
through its officers and its standing committees and is 
assisted in many instances by a women’s auxiliary. The 
administrative or executive work of the museum is car- 
ried on by a director, who is a paid agent of the trustees. 
Under the director is the staff made up of curators and 
their assistants. In a very small museum the staff may 
be a group of volunteers. 

Details as to form of the organization and its workings 
are given in succeeding chapters—especially the next five 
and the chapter on personnel relations—and also in ap- 
pendices on the charter, constitution and by-laws. 


ee aot atl 


VII 
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 


THE board of trustees of a museum is a body of public 
spirited citizens clothed with authority to manage the 
affairs of the institution. The trustees receive no com- 
pensation but are rewarded in the satisfaction that is 
born of useful service and in whatever honor may attach 
to their positions. The ideal trustee is a good business 
man or woman, interested in education, v with 1 few preju- 
dices, ‘affiliated. with no. narrow group, and capable of tak- 


erent: 


ing “continued interest in a museum without ‘trying to 
hamper _ the director by too. close. ‘interference 1 in detail. ; 


‘Although women are capable as trustees they usually 


find work of the women’s auxiliary to be more congenial. 

Elective trustees may number as many as a score, but 
ordinarily a board of not more than a dozen is most effec- 
tive. Trustees are elected by the corporation—that is, 
by the entire membership if the democratic form of organ- 
ization is adopted—and they usually serve for three, four 
or five years. The terms are arranged so that an equal 
number expires each year. This prevents a complete 
overturn of administration at any time, and assures 
continuity of policy. In some instances immediate re- 
election to the board is not permitted under the consti- 
tution, but this is a serious disadvantage. 

Ex-officio trustees should be in minority to avoid any 
danger of political interference. Three is the usual limit 
of their number. Local conditions determine the choice 
of public officials to serve in this capacity; in most com- 


t This sentence paraphrases the statement of qualifications for the ideal 
library trustee in: Bostwick, Arthur E. Administration of a public li- 
brary, Chicago, American Library Association, 1920, p. 3. 


24 


THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 25 


munities the superintendent of schools, the mayor, the 
commissioner of parks and some officer who is influential 
in municipal finances are among the eligibles. Evx-officio 
trustees should be induced, if possible, to take an active 
interest in the museum. 

The officers of the board—president, vice-president, 
secretary and treasurer—are usually elected by the 
trustees from among their own number. ‘This practice 
is regarded as safer than to entrust the power to the mem- 
bership at large. As a rule, each officer serves for one 
year and may be re-elected any number of times in 
succession. | 

The president should be a person of high standing in 
the community, though not necessarily the ‘‘first citi- 
zen.’’ It is imperative that he be a man of affairs and, 
further, a man of action. If he has independent means, 
he is in an ideal position to induce others to assist in the 
support of the museum. A man who is effective in this 
office should be held as long as possible. The vice-pres- 
ident should be of presidential calibre, since he is very 
likely to succeed to the presidency. ‘The secretary should 
be a person of business-like proclivities; a lawyer may 
serve in this capacity to special advantage. Ordinarily 
he is relieved of most of the duties of office by the direc- 
tor or those working under him, but in a small organiza- 
tion the secretary may assume the burdens which are 
always nominally his. The treasurer should be familiar 
with finances and management of property. ‘The offices 
of secretary and treasurer are sometimes combined. 

Much work of the board of trustees is delegated to com- 
mittees. Of these the most essential is the executive 
committee which should include the officers. There is 
usually an accession committee also. Meetings of the 
executive committee are usually held at short intervals, 
whereas the trustees meet perhaps quarterly, and the 


26 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


corporation—if it include the members of the museum— 
only annually. 

The machinery of the board, as defined by the consti- 
tution and by-laws, is more fully described in Appendix 
B, and the functions and duties of trustees, officers and 
committees are treated in the chapter on personnel 
relations—page 49. 

Although the board of trustees usually delegates a large 
part of its authority to officers and committees, every 
trustee has definite responsibilities which are not dis- 
charged by acceptance of his position or attendance at 
meetings. There are certain obligations neglected quite 
commonly with unfortunate results. These are first, to 
assist in raising funds, second, to help intelligently in 
establishing policies for their expenditure, and third, to 
keep in touch with the work in order to judge results. All 
three of these functions require giving of time, thought and 
effort. 


Vill 
THE DIRECTOR 


THE director is the chief administrative officer of a mu- 
seum. To the trustees he is professional adviser and agent 
in carrying on the work of the institution. He is assisted 
by his staff, which in a very small museum may be a 
group of volunteers. In fact, there are museums in which 
the director is the only regular employee, and in that 
case he functions on a small scale as the equivalent of the 
entire staff of a larger museum. Ideally, the director is 
concerned with administrative matters only, leaving the 
care of collections in the hands of specialists—either em- 
ployees or volunteers—who form the staff of curators. 
Under these conditions it is not difficult to combine the 
treatment of history, art and science, since the director 
is no more required to be historian, art connoisseur and 
scientist than is a hospital manager obliged to be both 
nurse and surgeon. With very limited assistance, how- 
ever, greater responsibility falls upon the director, and 
the museum’s field of usefulness tends to be little wider 
than the director’s range of knowledge. 

In any event, a museum director should be a person 
of wide interest, sound understanding of the field cov- 
ered by the institution and real devotion to public serv- 
ice. Breadth of mind is more important than wealth 
of knowledge—although, of course, both are desirable. 
Erudition in one field must not be accompanied by lack 
of sympathy for others with which the museum deals. 
A specialist is more likely to make a good director for a 
special museum than for a general one, but the individual 
with esoteric interests only, is not qualified to manage 
the affairs of any museum. 

27 


28 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Knowledge of art markets and values, which is indis- 
pensable to the director of a large art museum, is not as 
important to the director of a small one, since ordinarily 
acquisition of costly works is outside the range of his 
opportunity. 

Selection of the director is regarded as the most impor- 
tant single problem which comes before a museum board. 
Salary for a qualified director is the most productive com- 
mitment that the trustees can make. The life of a mu- 
seum is wrapped up in the personality and ability of its 
director. A museum in charge of a custodian or care- 
taker is doomed to be a mausoleum. 

Part of the time of a capable director is preferable to the 
full time of one less able. If several museums should 
share the cost and the time of a well-trained director, a 
splendid solution of the problem would be found. ‘This 
possibility is discussed in the chapter on expenditure— 
page 73. 

The title curator is applied to some directors, but this 
is not in keeping with best practice. Even though he 
may have no one to direct, the person in charge of a small 
museum is really the functional equivalent of the one 
who, in a larger institution, holds the title of director by 
virtue of his right to supervise the activities of others. 
Furthermore, the unassisted director of a small museum 
may be expected ultimately to develop a staff to relieve 
him of minor duties at least. The assistant who takes up 
the clerical work becomes the bursar and perhaps also the 
registrar—in fact if not in name. Those who assume 
charge of collections become curators. The director 
then becomes all that his title implies. However, if a 
person of curatorial type is first appointed, there may bea 
practical reason for use of the title curator, as evidence of 
an understanding that later a director may be placed in 
charge. 


THE DIRECTOR 29 


There are both men and women in the ranks of directors. 
The larger museums command the services of men in most 
instances, but many small museums are directed by 
women. In all probability the future will offer greater 
opportunity to women in this work. Whether or not a 
local person is to be desired cannot be answered for all 
cases, but other things being equal, a stranger usually has 
fewer difficulties because of ability to disregard petty 
traditions and undercurrents of personal triviality and 
jealousy which might tie the hands of a native. How- 
ever, personal qualifications are of greatest importance. 


IX 
THE STAFF 


Tu staff is the group of workers headed by the direc- 
tor. Ina large museum there may be on the staff a num- 
ber of curators—each in charge of a department repre- 
senting a branch of the field. There may be associate 
curators, assistant curators and assistants in each depart- 
ment. ‘There may be a librarian, a bursar, a registrar 
and a superintendent of buildings—each with helpers. 
However, in a small museum, the staff may consist of only 
the director, perhaps with volunteer associates and a 
part-time assistant or two. ? 

Experience shows that in many communities volun- 
teer service, especially of the curatorial type, can be se- 
cured. In fact, the ability of the director of a small 
museum to enlist and administer such help is one measure | 
of his success. Seldom isa volunteer able to give unremit- 
ting effort, but with special knowledge, he may render 
valuable service in such hours as he can spare. 


CURATORS 


A curator is a department head. Each curator has 
charge of collections in his field and, in a strong organiza- 
tion, besides developing and caring for the study collec-— 
tion, he plans exhibits—in conference with the director 
and sometimes with other curators—and supervises or 
carries out the preparation of exhibits along lines that are 
approved. He also collaborates with the director in ren- 
dering educational service and performing other museum 
functions. Ina very small museum it may be necessary 
that many of these duties devolve upon the director, the 

30 


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THE STAFF 31 


volunteer curators concerning themselves primarily with 
the study collections. 

Appointments should be made with eeerenee to nat- 
ural divisions of the field. A museum devoted to history, 
art and science might establish only the three depart- 
ments, securing the services—whether paid or volunteer 
—of a curator foreach. In many cases the director him- 
self fills at least one curatorship. 

The departmentization of a small museum may seem 
to be unnecessary, but if only as a way of assisting to or- 
ganize the collections and records, it is a convenient prac- 
tice to divide in this way. In fact, conditions may make 
it desirable to divide certain of the main subjects, espe- 
cially if a museum is concerned with only one of them. 
Perusal of the reports of the larger museums will indi- 
cate the possibilities. A very common practice is to set 
off a single major branch of a subject under one curator, 
grouping remaining branches under another. For ex- 
ample geology may be separated from the other sciences, 
archeology and ethnology from history, painting from 
the other arts. Local conditions—especially the num- 
ber and qualifications of people available for curatorial 
work—should determine arrangements. So long as lead- 
ership in any department is lacking, the corresponding 
branch of work is not ready for development. 

Teachers, college professors and librarians are usually 
most ready to help. Some collectors are of the museum 
type; others are absorbed in narrow specialties and are 
not receptive to new points of view. Volunteer, or hon- 
orary, curators should be appointed for one year at a 
time rather than for an indefinite period. This may 
help to solve problems that otherwise might be perplexing. 
Sometimes it is possible to enlist not only the interest of 
an individual but also the cooperation of an organization 
by making an appropriate appointment. For example 


32 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


an officer of the local chapter of the D. A. R. may be 
qualified to serve as curator of history, or a leader in an 
art association may be a proper candidate for curator of 
art. 

At best, however, a staff of volunteers is unsatisfactory; 
only with difficulty can a constructive program be pur- 
sued except through the efforts of paid workers. As the 
museum movement progresses, new means will surely be 
developed to aid small museums in employing personnel 
—perhaps through general adoption of a plan for coopera- 
tive staffs. 

The problem of securing instructors to carry on school 
service has been solved by a number of museums in a way 
that may be looked upon as standard practice. The 
school superintendent assigns one or more teachers to 
work at the museum under the direction of the proper 
museum authority but on pay of the school board. Ina 
small community this plan might be instituted with only 
part-time of an instructor. 


ASSISTANTS 


Office routine, clerical, shop and janitorial work de- 
mand the services of paid assistants—even if only on part- 
time. Usually much of this is done by a handy-man. 

The work which school boys and girls have performed 
for several museums leads to the thought that others 
might employ young people at odd hours. Mechanically 
or artistically inclined boys and young men may do ex- 
cellent work in preparation of exhibits. Patient and care- 
ful girls can adapt themselves easily to much of the routine 
work connected with records, labeling and arrangement 
of collections. Quite a small fund may be made to goa 
long way by engaging such help. 

There are also ways of securing some labor gratuitously, 


THE STAFF 33 


School classes in manual training make frames, trays, 
boxes, stools and even cases for several museums. In 
other places, city employees take care of the museum 
grounds, and policemen are assigned to guard duty in 
exhibition halls. The desirability of a police officer in 
this capacity depends largely upon individuality. A 
forbidding guard is harmful. 


xX 
THE MEMBERSHIP 


EVERYONE interested in a museum should have oppor- 
tunity to be identified with it and to share in its support 
by becoming a member. In many small cities from one 
to five per cent of the inhabitants are so enrolled. In 
addition to revenues which are derived from dues, a mu- 
seum receives immeasurable advantage from the influence 
of its own clientele, and the members in turn have oppor- 
tunity to derive special benefit from the work of the mu- 
seum. A strong membership is therefore an important 
asset. 

As already noted, the members may be connected only 
nominally with the institution, or they may be actual 
members of the corporation. The latter plan seems to 
be the more advantageous one for a small museum. 


CLASSES OF MEMBERSHIP 


It is customary to provide for various measures of gen- 
erosity towards a museum by establishing several so-called 
classes of membership—each with different dues. Further, 
in each class there are memberships of two kinds: the one 
involving annual dues and being renewable from year to 
year, the other depending upon a single relatively large 
contribution and continuing either for life or in perpetuity. 
The latter is a sort of paid-up membership—the required 
single contribution being of such amount that, if invested | 
at 5%, it yields each year the equivalent of annual dues 
of the same class. ‘These memberships for life or in per- 
petuity serve the purpose of cementing relations with 
members who might drop out sooner or later on the 

34 


THE MEMBERSHIP 35 


yearly plan, and also they may offer some inducement to 
the making of large contributions. | 

These principles are embodied in the following scale of 
memberships, which may be adopted as it stands or mul- 
tiplied by a factor of 2, 3, 5 or even Io in order to adjust 
it to the temper of a community or the needs of any par- 
ticular museum. 


Active Members $1 a year 
Contributing Members | Bey gaa 
Sustaining Members TO 


Active Members for Life $20 in one payment 
Donors' LOO: fs 
Patrons‘ 200 


A high scale of dues cannot be put into effect in every 
small community, but in most places there are at least a 
few people who can and will give $25 or more a year. 
Therefore, if the above scale is adopted, provision might 
be made for another class—Fellowship Members—pay- 
ing $25 a year, although, of course, this would necessitate 
dropping the class of Active Members for Life. There 
might also be a class of Benefactors with dues of $500 in 
one payment. However, since it is a mistake to start 
the scale of dues too low, the figures of the table multi- 
plied by 5 seem to be about right for most small museums. 

Some museums add to endowment all dues of members 
for life or in perpetuity, but this practice is difficult to 
follow consistently, as, for example, in the case of a person 
who contributes to current funds an amount sufficient to 
entitle him toelectionasa patron. Gifts of books, objects 
for the collections or other property may be considered as 
acceptable in lieu of cash contributions for election to 
membership in the higher classes. If this be so, the by- 


* Donors and Patrons may be elected either for life or in perpetuity. 


36 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


laws should specifically give the trustees discretion in 
each separate case. 

Children are admitted to some museums as Junior 
Members upon payment of dues of a few cents, but a more 
effective plan is to organize them separately, as explained 
in the chapter on activities for children. 

Honorary membership is a status which carries no finan- 
cial obligations, and which may be conferred by the trus- 
tees in recognition of exceptional services to the museum 
or the cause which it represents. Election is for life. 


PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS 


Many people become museum members out of willing- 
ness to assist an institution which renders public serv- 
ice; others join in expectation of returns. For the latter, 
and therefore for all, it is necessary to offer certain definite 
privileges of membership such as admission to special 
lectures, receiving publications and other advantages. 

Usually a membership card is provided. Many mu- 
seums by mutual agreement recognize each other’s cards, 
so that their members enjoy privileges out of town. 


GETTING MEMBERS 


The telephone is the most effective means of enlisting 
new “members. Some museums employ 0 one or more 
“women to make continuous efforts; others rely upon occa- 
sional help from volunteers who are willing to work on a 
list, a territory or a social group. 2 

It is imperative to solicit for the higher classes first, in 
order that good prospects for the higher classes may not 
escape by enrolling in lower classes with attractively small 
dues. This is accomplished easily in the case of a newly 
organized museum or of one which is developing its mem- 
bership for the first time, but an institution with an estab- 


THE MEMBERSHIP a7 


lished membership may place itself in the same position 
of advantage by closing admission to all classes except the 
uppermost. Then, as its efforts progress, it may open 
the successively lower classes one at a time, over a period 
of several years. 

It will be found advantageous from the standpoint of 
bookkeeping to date all memberships from the beginning 
of a fiscal year. Members who join late in a year may 
have their memberships dated ahead and enjoy member- 
ship privileges gratis for afew months. This is an econom- 
ical practice in the long run. 

The average member continues in good standing for 
four or five years and then drops out. At the end of 
the third year, therefore, it is good practice to make an 
effort to interest each annual member in a membership 
for life or in perpetuity. By persistence in seeking new 
friends, and attention to keeping those already enlisted, 
a museum should be able to secure substantial income 
from its membership. 


XI 
THE WOMEN’ 5 pebsit 


ne order to Shove congenial channeld of effort for 
women who may be interested in a museum, it is advan- 
tageous to form a women’s auxiliary, which by precedent 
is an independent society with its own members, officers 
and rules. It is essentially a cooperating organization, 
although in the nature of things its relations to the mu- 
seum become more direct and intimate than those of other 
such organizations. In some instances a permanent pro- 
vision is made to secure representation of the auxiliary 
on the board of trustees, but whether this arrangement 
is formal or not, such representation is usually given. 

In order to assure harmonious cooperation, administra- 
tive status should be defined clearly. Invariably, an 
auxiliary is an advisory body which may make recom- 
mendations to the trustees, but which exercises no actual 
control of museum affairs. Its influence may be strong, 
especially if its recommendations are supported by offers 
of financial assistance, but even work which it supports 
should not be controlled directly by the auxiliary. All 
authority should be in the hands of the director, acting 
under instructions from the trustees. Even if members of 
the auxiliary participate as volunteers on the staff of the 
museum, they should do so out of a desire to assist and 
not to exercise authority. Otherwise extremely difficult 
situations are created and the work of the museum suffers. 

An auxiliary may be able to do useful work in many 
directions, but experience has shown that attention is 
given most advantageously to support of activities for 
children. This branch makés strong” appeal to women, 


‘and the arrangement is manifestly so appropriate that 


38 


THE WOMEN’S AUXILIARY 39 


public sympathy and support are not too difficult to 
secure. Money raising efforts of the group frequently 
take the form of social functions—enterprises in which 
the museum itself could not indulge with full propriety. 
Through its auxiliary a museum may hold the active in- 
terest of an ever increasing number of homes, and in con- 
sequence should see its influence and usefulness develop. 


XII 
COOPERATING ORGANIZATIONS _ 


IN aes every community there are established organ- 
izations devoted to subjects with which museums deal. 
In the field of history there may be a historical or pioneers’ 
or old settlers’ society, a chapter of Colonial Dames or 
D. A. R., a post of the G. A. R. or a branch of any of the 
score/of national or regional patriotic bodies. Art may 
have devoteees in any art association or a women’s club. 
Intérest in science may be represented by an Audubon 
so¢iety, Agassiz club or horticultural society. 

/A museum should make every effort to give encourage- 
ment and help to such groups, and in dealing with them it 
Should avoid competing or seeking to absorb them or to 
gain control of their affairs. There is need of cooperation 
everywhere, but much so-called cooperation among organ- 
izations of every size and rank is virtually masked war- 
fare—selfishness and competition parading as generosity. 
Real cooperation can begin only when each party is con- 
vinced of the good will of the other and when each wants 
to show its own intentions by its helpfulness. 

A very material aid that can be given to some organiza- 
tions is to ‘provide a ‘meeting place. for them. Every mu- 
“seum should have a room for meetings, ‘and in a small 
museum where the auditorium is used for this purpose, 
the space is usually not elaborately appointed—flexibil- 
ity being afforded by simple and movable equipment. 
Such a room may be arranged to suit almost any kind of 
gathering, and may be put to excellent cooperative use. 
Ordinarily museums make no charge except for actual cost 
of light and service, but the privilege is given discrimi- 
nately. 

40 


SOUTHWEST MUSEUM, LOS ANGELES. 


a 


a 


z 
© 


COOPERATING ORGANIZATIONS 41 


Scouts, woodcrafters, campfire girls and other groups of 
young people may avail themselves of this advantage. 
Activities for children who are reached in this way are 
discussed in another chapter—page 246. 

societies which do not purpose to own property often 
become the recipients of collections containing materials 
of museum quality or character, and they may desire to 
deposit such collections in a museum. This is another 
basis of cooperation. A museum favored in this way 
should be careful to maintain its policies in the matter of 
what it will accept. Accession policies and terms of 
loan are dealt with elsewhere—page 121. 

There are instances of very great helpfulness on the 
part of cooperating organizations. For example, in one 
city a society sponsors a department of the museum and 
pays the salary of a regular member of the museum staff 
to work along lines that are mutually agreed upon. 


HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 


Many historical societies exemplify strikingly the em- 
barrassment of an organization by what it owns. AIl- 
though interested primarily in American history, and act- 
ing almost invariably as historical libraries, these socie- 
ties become burdened with unwieldy collections of all 
sorts and from every corner of the earth. When room is 
needed to continue proper work, the appeal for it is usu- 
ally translated into a call for space in which to house 
partly irrelevant and entirely ill-kept collections. A 
fireproof building is erected and jammed full, and little 
by little the organization is choked to death. 

If such an accumulation of objects were deposited in a 
museum on indefinite loan or by gift, two creditable pieces 
of work might be done—one by a historical society and 
one by amuseum. It is doubtful that the future will see 


42 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


any marked and general rejuvenation of historical society 
museums, but with the growth of public museums in small 
communities where so many of the societies are located, 
it may be that some of the collections will be transformed 
into worthy museum exhibits. 


PUBLIC LIBRARIES 


Libraries and museums are natural cooperators because 
they have purposes that are similar and methods that 
need not overlap. However, since many libraries have 
exhibit spaces and most museums have special book col- 
lections, there are practical reasons for arriving at under- 
standings. Relations which have to do with books are 
treated in the chapter on the museum library—page 264. 

In the use of the library’s exhibit space, there is a prac- 
tice which has become established in many cities, large 
and small. Museums have learned that branch exhibits 
installed in public buildings, and changed from time to 
time, are effective in reaching much larger audiences 


than museum attendance can provide. Libraries have 
‘discovered that exhibits stimulate the reading of books 


related tothem. Therefore, arrangements are often made 
for a museum to install small temporary loan exhibits in 
a library—the cases being provided by the borrower. 

In any community, the museum and the library may 
profitably be located upon adjacent sites, but it has been 
found undesirable as a rule to consolidate them under 
one managing board, or to have the two institutions in 
charge of one person. Methods and viewpoints are so dif- 
ferent that a museum director is rarely a good librarian 
and vice-versa. 


EDUCATIONAL COUNCILS 


In a number of communities, the persons immediately 
responsible for the work of various educational agencies 


COOPERATING ORGANIZATIONS 43 


have constituted themselves an informal group for dis- 
cussion of matters in which they have common interest— 
especially questions of cooperation or mutual agreement 
as to province. These groups are termed educational 
councils, and the plan which they represent is recom- 
mended highly. There are hundreds of places where the 
director of a museum, the secretary of a historical society 
and the librarian might get together occasionally. To 
such a nucleus other leaders may be drawn to the end of 
giving the community the best advantages with a mini- 
mum of loss through duplication of effort and friction. 


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_ ADMINISTRATION | 


XIII 
PERSONNEL RELATIONS 


THE effectiveness of museum administration depends, in 
the last analysis, upon the characteristics of individuals 
who make up the organization. It would be futile to 
dwell upon personal traits if it were hoped to change 
them, but it is vital to consider them as a basis for selec- 
tion and elimination of individuals. Within the board 
this responsibility falls chiefly upon the president even 
though he has not power to act arbitrarily. For mem- 
bers of the staff, the director is responsible. 

Certain qualifications for places on the board and staff 
have already been considered, but others of equal impor- 
tance are those which are evidenced by conduct that is 
termed business-like and ethical. 


BUSINESS-LIKE CONDUCT 


Sometimes it is maintained or assumed that business 
standards are quite unrelated to professional work, but 
there are objections to this attitude which have been 
stated especially well in respect to libraries. 


*“The public library is, or should be, a business insti- 
tution. Those who do not like to admit this do not 
realize that business, conducted in a ‘business-like’ way, 
is the most honorable of occupations and the most use- 
ful to the community. To say that librarianship is a 
business is to pay it a compliment. ‘To assert that a 
librarian’s administration is not ‘business-like’ is to 
make one of the most serious charges that could be 
brought against it. The public library does not oper- 

47 


48 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ate for a money profit, but it must show that it has ren- 
dered services to the community that are well worth the 
money that the community has put into it. The very 
fact that its success cannot be measured financially, 
like that of a commercial concern, is all the more reason 
for making sure that its work is carried on in the same 
manner that would bring success in commerce.’’! 


Business-like propensities are evidenced by quickness 
and exactness in grasping ideas, good judgment i In. reach- 
ing decisions, accuracy in making statements, promptness 


earn TRS 


| control in aWeaet annoyances and. carefulness and. econ- 


ee 


omy in use of property. The ultimate result of business- 
like conduct in efficiency. 


ETHICAL CONDUCT 


In order to emphasize the importance of right-thinking 
and right-doing, The American Association of Museums 
has adopted a code of ethics for museum workers. A 
copy of the code will be sent by the Association upon 
request addressed to headquarters at The Smithsonian 
Institution, Washington, D. C. These practical canons 
are predicated upon three personal qualities: devotion to a 
cause, faith in the unselfishness of motives of co-workers 
and honor as a controlling motive of thought and action. 

On the borderline between good business and ethics is 
the matter of etiquette in dealing with the public. The 
reputation of a museum is created by the courtesy and 
consideration which is accorded to visitors. Even the 
youngest assistant shares largely in this guardianship of 

t Bostwick, Arthur E. Some principles of business-like conduct in 
libraries. Chicago, American Library Association, 1920, 30 pp. Use 


which has been made of this booklet in prepares these paragraphs is 
acknowledged. 


PERSONNEL RELATIONS 49 


good will—the intangible asset which is quite as import- 
ant in the professional world as it is in trade. 


POWERS AND DUTIES 


Granted an organization of qualified individuals, suc- 
cessful administration depends upon proper relations 
between them. Such relations are established in part by 
observance of the universal laws which govern dealings 
between superior and subordinate, and in part by wise 
determination and clear definition of the province and 
responsibility of each person. An individual should be 

“tesponsible to only one other individual, namely the one 
upon whose recommendation appointment is received or 
may be revoked. This is the fundamental law of group 
action. If administrative channels of authority and 
responsibility are not set up in obedience to it, there ensue 
invasions of rights and insubordinations which lead to 
misunderstanding, friction and clash. 

This principle, as well as definitions of province, is 
reflected in the recognized powers and duties of trustees 
and their officers and committees, the director and mem- 
bers of the staff. 


OF THE TRUSTEES 


_ Trustees, if elected by the members of the museum, are 
responsible for stewardship to the members as a body. 
This is essentially equivalent to accountability to the pub- 
lic. Although disapproval of a trustee’s services may be 
expressed in an extreme case by removing him, ordinarily 
it is shown by failure to re-elect. If members were always 
alert to the performances of their trustees, the power of 
election alone would practically assure good trusteeship, 
but most members are indifferent and therefore it is usual 


50 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


to delegate to the trustees, by constitutional provision, 
the power of nominating their colleagues, and as a con- 
sequence election becomes more or less perfunctory. In 
fact, as indicated in the chapter on organization—page 22 
—the trustees of many museums are the only members of 
the corporation and therefore form the body in supreme 
authority. 

‘‘“The trustee is the representative of the public and, 
as such, is interested in results as distinguished from 
methods,’’ which are the business of the director as expert 
administrator. ‘This distinction is elaborated in succeed- 
ing paragraphs, but there is an excellent and interesting 
discussion of it in Bostwick’s article on The whole duty of 
a library trustee.* 


OF THE OFFICERS 


In a few museums officers are elected by the member- 
ship, but to avoid parallel lines of authority, as well as 
for the other practical reasons already mentioned, it is 
better that they be elected by the trustees. The presi- 
dent, as chairman of the board and of the executive com- 
mittee, is in active charge of all affairs and is responsible 
to the board. Official actions of the board or the execu- 
tive committee are given effect by the president; other 
officers, committees of trustees through their chairmen, 
and the director look to him. ‘The vice-president has 
no function except to act for the president during his ill- 
ness or absence. 

The secretary has certain nominal duties, as defined in 
the by-laws set forth in Appendix B, but the work is usu- 
ally done by the director or members of his staff, and 
therefore in many instances the office of secretary is 
merged with that of treasurer. The duties of the treas- 


t Bulletin American Library Association, October 1926, 20: 555-557. 


PERSONNEL RELATIONS 51 


urer are taken up later in this chapter in connection with 
administration of finances. 


Or COMMITTEES OF THE BOARD 


Part of the business of the board is transacted by com- 
mittees, of which at least two are standing committees. 

The executive committee acts for the board on all mat- 
ters of business during intervals between board meetings. 
It is entrusted with financial management, thus making a 
finance committee unnecessary unless it is desired to 
have a body to advise the treasurer in the matter of in- 
vesting funds. 

The accession commitiee—sometimes inaptly called 
exhibits committee or museum committee—determines pol- 
icies in matters relating to the collections and exhibits, 
and passes on accessions. However it need not pass on 


all details of acquisition since the director should have 


“power to make decisions if expenditure is not involved. 
“The fact that the accession committee ordinarily takes 
this limited jurisdiction accounts for the circumstance 
that in museums of art this committee is very active in 
passing upon accessions, whereas in most museums of 
science and history it is relatively unimportant. Mu- 
seums of art alone acquire a majority of their objects by 
purchase. 

Other committees—usually temporary ones—are set 
up for specific purposes as occasions demand. At each 
year-end a nominating committee is appointed. A build- 
ing committee is needed when a building is under construc- 
tion, and other committees may be required from time 
to time. However, it is a mistake to constitute a com- 
mittee for purposes ‘which fall within the province of the 
Stal ‘For example,under normal conditions a publicity 
Pe imittce and a publications committee are unneces- 


sary. 


ee 


52 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


OF THE DIRECTOR 

The director is responsible to the board through the pres- 
ident. No trustee should force the director to recall this 
fact because of difficulty in carrying out conflicting wishes 
of two or more persons, and furthermore the director 
should not be unreasonable in regard to informal relations 
which trustees other than the president may desire to 
have with him direct. However, the principle should be 
recognized and respected, especially by the secretary and 
treasurer whose dealings with the director may be fre- 
quent. The director should be expected to attend all 


. meetings of the board and of committees. He may be 


asked to retire upon occasions, but this should rarely be 
necessary. Harmony between trustees and director is 
essential, and if it exists the trustees will desire the pres- 
ence of the director at all meetings. 

The director should not be required to bring details 
to the attention of the board. He naturally makes rec- 
ommendations on any matters of importance, and the 
trustees should give careful study to his plans in an effort 
to support them and to become thoroughly familiar with 
practical aspects of the institution’s business. After 
policies are established, however, the director should be 
given freedom to carry them out. Trustees should be 
willing to give help and advice but loath to interfere. A 
common source of administrative difficulty is the meddling 
of trustees in the director’s affairs. In exercising its 
authority over the director, the board should be careful 
not to discourage or thwart him. A director who needs 
continual prodding or who must be checked at every turn 
should not be continued in office. A good director de- 
serves, and should be given, reasonable freedom even > 
though the board may not approve fully of every detail 
of his performance. 

Both the president and the director should be prime 


PERSONNEL RELATIONS 53 


movers, but their efforts need never interfere. Together 
they should develop plans; the president with worldly 
wisdom, the director with professional knowledge and 
experience. The president should enlist support; the 
director should carry out the work. 


OF THE STAFF 


The director is chief of staff. Appointments to the 
staff should be made by the board on his recommendation, 
and he should be held responsible for acts of staff members. 
A paid director needs much tact in dealing with a volun- 
teer staff, but in principle the relations between the direc- 
tor and curators should be the same whether or not the 
curators are employees. 

Maintainance of ideal relations between curators 
should be a constant concern of the director. Any spe- 
cial interest of the director should not bring undue 
favors to one branch of work and neglect to others which 
are equally deserving. If the work of one curator must 
be limited more than that of another, the persons affected 
should be made to understand the issues involved. Deci- 
sions should always be based upon policy—never upon 
favoritism. 

Curators should be guided by the same desire for har- 
mony that should move the director. This will deter 
them from embarrassing the organization by trying to 
influence policies except through official channels. This 
applies to all—even a trustee who may be willing to play 
a second official role as a curator, or a volunteer worker 
who may not be a member of the staff. The most im- 
portant duty of the director is to get things done, and in 
a small museum progress is slow without the help and 
cooperation of many people. To enlist cooperation the 
director must have a reasonably free hand and must be 
able to exercise tact and ingenuity. 


54 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ADMINISTRATION OF FINANCES! 


The board of trustees is responsible for the financial life 
of a museum. As head of the institution, the president 
should take the initiative in providing income, but in 
order that the museum may have healthy life and growth 
he should have the support of the executive committee, 
and of every trustee, as well as the assistance of the direc- 
tor, who functions as professional advisor to the board 
and as agent of the board in the conduct of all museum 
business. Although it is the duty of the director to assist 
in securing funds, the trustees should realize clearly that 
if the director is burdened with undue financial responsi- 
bility, his efficiency as an administrator and as spokes- 
man for the museum is seriously impaired and the general 
interests of the museum are bound to suffer. 

The treasurer is usually concerned more with the care 
of funds than with the raising of them. ‘The executive 
committee may advise him in any matters of finance 
which he is not prepared to handle on his own responsi- 
bility, since, as a rule, the board of a small museum does 
not appoint a finance committee for this purpose. Cus- 
tomarily the treasurer is not an active accounting officer, 
but rather that member of the board charged with the 
responsibility of seeing that proper accounts are kept 
and that they reflect the true condition of finances. The 
actual work of accounting is carried on ordinarily by a 
member of the museum staff—sometimes called bursar 
or assistant treasurer—who works under the supervision 
of the director. The treasurer and director should agree 
upon the principles of accounting, and the director, with 


1 This section and the following five chapters, which are devoted to 
finance, have been prepared with the collaboration of Paul Marshall Rea, 
Director of The Cleveland Museum of Natural History and Vice-Chairman 
of the Committee on Finance and Accounting of The American Association 
of Museums. 


PERSONNEL RELATIONS 55 


the approval of the board should have these principles 
put into effect. The treasurer should be responsible to 
the board for the accuracy of the accounts; the director 
for the carrying out of financial policies. 

In the case of a very small museum the accounting 
function may devolve upon the director himself. If, to 
relieve this overburden, the treasurer take up the duties 
he should remember that he is really assisting the director 
in this respect. 

The director should work under a budget approved by 
the board and should not be required to secure authoriza- 
tion individually for disbursements. However, extra- 
ordinary expenditures, such as those for equipment or 
collections, are better made by special order of the board. 
In other words, operating expenses should be budgeted 
and placed under the control of the director, but capital 
outlay should be made by the board itself. The chap- 
ters on expenditure and plant go into this more fully. 

For the sake of promptness and simplicity in disburse- 
ment, the director may be given a working fund protected 
by a fidelity bond, and he may make disbursements as 
' obligations become payable, and secure reimbursements 
from the treasurer at convenient intervals upon submis- 
sion of properly supported vouchers. Under this plan 
reasonable freedom of action by the director in financial 
matters is coupled with strict accountability to the board 
through a corporate officer—the treasurer. Both the 
accuracy of the accounts and their adaptation to the needs 
of the museum are assured in this way. 


XIV 
INCOME 


THERE are three important classes of museum income: 
first, appropriations from public treasurers, second, gifts 
from individuals, and third, income on endowment... 
Some museums depend solely upon public appropriations 
and some upon gifts; others are supported entirely by 
endowment. So far as practicable, however, a museum 
should develop each of these three possible sources. 

The following is a classification of museum income 
based upon source: . 


100‘ Public appropriations 
130 From county 
150 From city 
200 Gifts 
230 Dues of members? 
250 Contributions 
270 Bequests 
300 Income on endowment 
400 Income from other sources 
430 Fees 
433 Admission 
435 Lecture 
437 Instruction 
439 Other services, honoraria 


t The numbers prefixed to these items may be disregarded at this point. 
Reference is made to them in the chapter on accounting—pages 88 and 
95- 

2 Dues are usually regarded not as the price of membership privileges, 
but as modest donations. Dues, contributions and bequests for current 
expenses are all essentially alike; they are gifts whether large or small. 


56 


INCOME 57 


450 Sales 

453 Publications 

455 Museum objects 
470 Interest on bank balances 
490 Miscellaneous 


PUBLIC APPROPRIATIONS 


Some museums receive support from nation or state, 
but rarely does a small museum secure public funds except 
from the county and the local governmental unit— 
whether city, town or village. It is customary for appro- 
priations to be made directly to a museum, but in some 
instances funds are granted to a school board, a library 
board or a park board which in turn supports museum 
activities. Ordinarily this last arrangement is undesir- 
able, principally because it deprives the museum of a cer- 
tain independence as well as direct accountability to the 
public, but under some conditions the disadvantage 
might be outweighed by further removal from politics 
which is so effected. 


CITY AND COUNTY SUPPORT ~ 


Every museum should endeavor to secure the support 
of both the county and the local administrations. At 
present the city shows a higher record of museum sup- 
port—perhaps because it has been cultivated more indus- 
triously, but the county doubtless holds greater possibil- 
ities and ultimately may prove to be the stronger finan- 
cial bulwark. The resources of a city are absorbed by 
extension of its school system, police and fire protection 
facilities, streets, sewers and parks. In almost every 
community demands are large and are increasing by 
bounds. The county, on the other hand, is more stable. 
Fewer new demands are made upon it than upon the city 


58 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


and yet its resources increase with the growth of local 
populations. The county, however, is apt not to be fav- 
orably disposed toward supporting a local museum 
unless local support is given. Therefore both sources 
of income should be developed. 


CAPITAL versus CURRENT FUNDS 


A museum may receive public money that is raised in 
either of two ways, namely, by taxation or by sale of 
bonds. The distinction between these two classes of 
funds is reflected not only in the means by which they 
are secured but also in the purposes to which they may 
be devoted. An appropriation from tax funds is included 
in the city or county budget and its authorization is a 
matter of regular business. On the other hand, assump- 
tion of bonded indebtedness by city or county is a special 
question affected by state laws which limit public debt 
and which require in many instances that the question 
be submitted to referendum at the polls. The chapter 
on campaigns deals with methods of influencing official 
or popular vote. 

Appropriations from taxes are available for current 
expenses. Proceeds of a bond issue, however, constitute 
capital and should be used only for purchase of assets. 
These distinctions are dealt with further in the chapters 
on expenditure and plant—pages 68 and 75. 


BASIS OF TAX APPROPRIATION 


No generally recognized basis of public support has ever 
been evolved in practice. Most museums that receive 
any tax funds at all, have flat grants which are determined 
in amount either by supposed needs or by the attitude of 
appropriating bodies toward museum work. Such grants 
range from a trifling amount to one upon which an insti- 
tution may depend for its entire support. 


INCOME 59 


However, certain museums do receive from the city the 
proceeds of a specified annual tax—14 to 14 mill per dollar 
of assessed valuation in the city, being the range of allot- 
ments which are most nearly adequate. Other museums 
which have city appropriations enjoy approximately 
equivalent support although the amounts of such grants 
are determined each year without regard to any fixed 


‘Tate. 


For obvious reasons it is desirable that museum appro- 
priations be established upon some basis which will per- 
mit of comparing conditions in many cities. Assessed 
valuation is a more satisfactory datum than population 
because it measures ability to pay. Inthe United States, 
assessed valuation ranges from an average of approxi- 
mately $400 per capita for small cities in relatively unde- 
veloped regions to about $2,000 per capita for larger 
industrial cities. Therefore a tax of 14 mill would give 
from 10 cents to 50 cents per capita. 

It has been suggested that the total of a city’s expendi- 
tures for all operating purposes be adopted instead of 
assessed valuation as the basis of measurement, since, 
by showing what the people are.accustomed to do for 
various services, that figure reflects the temper of a 
population as well as the ability to pay. For cities of 
more than 30,000 inhabitants, total expenditures have 
been calculated and published by the U. S. Bureau of 
Census, but, unfortunately, statistics for smaller com- 
munities have not been obtained since 1912. 

The county appropriation, in a number of instances, is 
equal in amount to that of the city. 


MUSEUM SUPPORT IN THE LAW 

Ten states have laws relating to museum support, as 
set forth in Appendix D. These laws show marked dis- 
parities and most of them make inadequate provisions. 


TT 


ae 


60 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Because of the vital importance of proper legislative 
background for the support of museums by county and 
local authorities, The American Association of Museums 
has embarked upon an effort to secure uniform and 
improved laws. Institutions seeking public funds would 
do well to communicate with the Association in order to 
align their efforts with those of other museums and of the 
national body. 


PERFORMANCE BEFORE FUNDS 

Almost invariably public support comes as a sequel to 
public service. Even though the service may be modest, 
it must show constructive beginnings before governmental 
authorities can be persuaded to abet it. The complaint 
is often heard that work languishes because it is not 
supported, but this is only a feeble excuse for “lack of 
initiative. A constructive plan accompanied by : a small 


sample of performance, and backed up by enthusiasm, 


_ seldom fails to enlist funds for development. 


THE POLITICAL CONTROL BOGEY 

There need be no fear that use of public funds will ren- 
der a museum helpless against political interference, if 
terms of acceptance are made wisely—by contract or 
otherwise. Appendix C bears upon this point. : 

On the board of a museum which receives public sup- 
port, it is customary to include one or two public officials. 
as ex-officio trustees, but their votes cannot exercise con- 
trol. There is a possibility of interference in connection 
with appointments, especially during the formative period 
when a museum has not had opportunity to establish pre- 
cedents for sound practice, but vigorous management 
should override such difficulties. If unwholesome influ- 
ence is brought to bear, the most a museum stands to 
lose is its appropriation. Surely it is better to have pub- 


INCOME 61 


lic support at least until difficulties do arise, than never 
to enjoy it lest embarrassments may ensue. In practice 
there has been almost no trouble with politics. 


GIFTS 


Dues of members are discussed in the chapter on the 
membership—page 34. 

Contributions and bequests may be made towards either 
current funds or capital. A contributor to current funds | 
may be elected an annual member; in fact, membership 
is commonly conferred in the hope that renewal may be 
induced in following years. This accounts in large 
measure for the practice of maintaining several classes 
of membership with dues ranging into relatively high 
figures. 

The greater the number of gifts represented in income of 
this class, the better. If a museum becomes dependent 
upon the generosity of a very few individuals for its main- 
tenance, there is always serious danger from unexpected’ 
discontinuance of the support. Twenty contributions of 
$100 are much more significant than one of $2,000. The 
importance of a strong membership follows from this 
principle. | 

Gifts to a museum which is organized as a corporation 
not for profit are deductible from income tax returns up 
to the limit set by law. 


CAMPAIGNS FOR CONTRIBUTIONS 


Contributions are sometimes secured by campaign 
methods, and with especial success if funds for a definite 
project rather than for general support are sought. One 
institution raised money for the purchase of a Ford car 
by a campaign for dollar contributions. 

Experience has shown conclusively that it is not advan- 


62 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


tageous for museums to share in a community chest. 
Contributions made in response to a community chest 
campaign are generally understood to be for charitable 
not educational purposes. 


GRANTS 


In past, libraries and other educational institutions have 
enjoyed abundantly the munificence of foundations, but 
only in a few instances have museums received contribu- 
tions from this source. If the time should come when 
museums are given the boon of more extensive help of this 
kind there may be strong basis of appeal in the need for 
trained directors. A grant for the employment of a direc- 
tor for perhaps five years would make possible construc- 
tive beginnings which would seem to be more important 
than the gains to be derived, for example, from erection 
of a building. 


BEQUESTS 

Bequests which are made specifically for current ex- 
penses are treated in the same way as other contributions, 
but it is usual to add bequests to endowment if contrary 
provision is not made by will. 


RESTRICTED GIFTS 


Donors are usually more ready to make restricted 
gifts or bequests than unrestricted ones, because the 
definiteness of a special project is appealing. It is desir- 
able to take advantage of this inclination, but care should 
always be exercised to see that restricted gifts do not 
involve the museum in additional expenses which other- 
wise would not be necessary, and for which no provision 
is made. For example, a gift for the purchase of exhibits 
may embarrass the trustees by requiring the purchase of 
a case for which funds are not available. However, if a 


INCOME 63 


project is part of a program of immediate urgency, the 
burden is lightened quite as much by a contribution for 
that purpose as by a gift of unrestricted funds. 

There is endless opportunity for exercise of ingenuity 
in developing special projects. Purchase of an object, 
a collection or a piece of equipment, printing of a publica- 
tion, financing of a collecting trip or an expedition—all 
such definite purposes have strong appeal. The follow- 
ing memorandum prepared by Clinton G. Abbott, Direc- 
tor of the Museum of Natural History, San Diego, explain- 
ing how a series of small bird groups was financed, is sug- 
gestive of ways in which many other problems might be 
solved. 


‘On the little cases which contain our bird groups we 
set a figure of $50. Of some of the simpler ones, this 
perhaps covered the cost, but of the more elaborate 
ones, it did not. However we determined upon that 
figure and approached some of our tradespeople in the 
hope that they would pay for, or present, one or more 
of these groups. It was arranged that, should they so 
desire, the cases which are readily portable, could be 
displayed in the donors’ windows for as long as they 
wished. We made suggestions which were followed out 
somewhat as follows: 

“‘A meadowlark group representing the male in very 
bright dress, the female, nest and eggs, was paid for 
by a men’s and women’s clothing store, and displayed 
in its window in the early spring with some such slogan 
as: Take a pointer from the birds. Now 1s the tume for 
your new spring clothes. 

“One savings bank paid for two of the little groups. 
One represented a pair of California woodpeckers storing 

acorns in the bark of a pine tree; the other represented 
a pair of California shrikes impaling their surplus prey 


64 


MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


on the spines of a cactus. These were placed in the 
bank’s windows, one on each side of the main entrance, 
and attracted great crowds. The woodpecker case 
was labeled The Saving Instinct and there was a state- 
ment that man would do well to follow the example of 
the woodpecker by opening a savings account at the 
bank. The shrike case bore a label with the caption: 
Looking Ahead and Are you providing for the future by 
storing up your dollars now? 

‘‘A bush-tit’s nest was taken by a real estate firm. 
A mockingbird group, which represents the male in 
full song, was especially spoken for by a music house. 

‘‘Every case thus sold is marked with a neat metal 
label saying Presented by So-and-So. In a few cases, 
a public-spirited firm gave us $50 for the case, but did 
not care to display it and let us pick out the subject. 

‘Of quite a different type was the aid of the B. P. O. 
Elks in connection with our elk group. We secured by 
exchange four beautiful animals but had no resources 
to meet the expense of the large case that was required. 
Through one of our trustees, we approached a lodge 
and they agreed to contribute $1,000. Actually the 
case cost $1,200, but we have placed a tablet on it 
which reads, The case containing this group donated to 
the Museum of Natural History by San Diego Lodge 168 
B. P. O. Elks, October, 1924.”’ 


INCOME ON ENDOWMENT 


Income on endowment consists of interest or dividends 


on stocks, bonds, mortgages, loans and uninvested cash 


in 


bank, and rental of real estate in which the permanent 


funds of the museum are invested. Some institutions 
derive support largely or entirely from this source and 
every museum may ultimately secure a degree of stabil- 


INCOME 65 


ity for its work by developing such assured income. 
Income on endowment must not be confused with endow- 
ment itself, which is the subject of another chapter. 


INCOME FROM OTHER SOURCES 


Admission fees are charged on certain days by many 
museums, but there is a trend towards free admission of 
the public at all times. Lectures are usually free, whether 
‘for members only or for the public, and therefore are 
not income-producing. Fees for instruction include the 
charges made by some museums for conducting parties, 
and tuitions for special classes, but small museums cannot 
make such charges as gracefully as large institutions. In 
fact the total yield from fees of all kinds is usually quite 
small. 

An item which may be developed substantially is sale 
of objects. Any museum which will undertake to pre- 
pare duplicate exhibits to order, may develop a fair 
income through dealings with other museums. 


TOTAL OF INCOME 


There are no recognized standards for determining the 
total of income which a museum should have in order to 
render effective service to a population of any stated size. 
In practice a museum usually develops each source to the 
utmost, and then finds the total to be inadequate to needs. 
Librarians have agreed upon one dollar per capita as the 
minimum amount of annual income with which effective 
library work can be carried on. A museum has very com- 
parable needs, but 25 cents per capita is approximately the 
average total income—the range being from 20 cents to 50 
cents. It will be seen, therefore, that there are relatively 
few instances of public support on the 14 mill basis, for as 
already shown—page 59—this source alone may yield 


66 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


from 10 cents to 50 cents per capita. In most large cities 
several museums share in this total, and their combined 
work may be regarded as a community museum program. 
In small cities, however, one museum usually receives the 
entire appropriation. In fact the necessity of concentrat- 
ing forces in this way is doubtless the cause which has 
produced the all-embracing museum. 

In the smallest of communities it may be impossible to 
finance a museum locally, but through cooperation along 
lines discussed in the next chapter, museum service should 
be made feasible even in villages of a few hundred inhab- 
itants. Therefore one cannot well speak of minimum 
income for the smallest museum. 

The extent to which each source of income may most 
aptly share in the total is not stateable in percentages, 
but there are certain accepted principles which define the 
broad lines of an ideal budget of income. The city is 
called upon by custom to provide annual appropriations 
for cleaning, policing and upkeep of building and grounds. 
The city and county ordinarily share in the support of 
educational work. Gifts usually provide a further sub- 
stantial part of the budget, and income on endowment 
should be sufficient to supply the balance—covering if 
possible the total of all salaries, so that personal services 
may be secure. Any additional income on endowment, 
together with gifts and bequests which are restricted to 
the purpose are employed to purchase objects for the 
collections and exhibits and to carry on research. ‘The 
next chapter indicates specifically the items of expense 
which enter into these various lines of work. 

Many museums operate on so small a margin of reserve 
that borrowing may become necessary at times. As ex- 
plained in following chapters, plant and endowment are 
not to be put up as collateral, but museums do borrow 
against taxes levied but not collected, appropriations 


INCOME 67 


authorized but not received and, in some instances, contri- 
butions pledged but not paid. They may borrow upon 
notes personally guaranteed by trustees, or on open ac- 
count if their reputation is of the highest. 


XV 
EXPENDITURE 


MUSEUM expenditures are of two kinds: operating ex- 
penditures and capital expenditures. _Operating expend- 
itures, Or running expenses, pay for ‘salary, heat, light, 
supplies, printing and all of the current activities. _They 
are consumed in service. Capital expenditures, or capi- 
tal outlays, are for purchase of physical assets, namely, 
land, building, equipment, collections and ‘books. _ They 


are stored up in property values. 


Operating expense is incurred in the usual course of 
business from day to day and from month to month as 
provided for in the budget. It is met from current in- 
come. Capital outlay, on the other hand, is made only 
after special deliberation, and only when the necessary 
funds are actually in hand. Recognition of this distinc- 
tion is important to the clearness and comparability of 
financial reports. Relatively large outlays of capital are 
likely to be incurred at irregular intervals, and therefore 
if mixed with operating expenditures, they cause totals to 
fluctuate from year to year in a way that masks true con- 
ditions. If the two are kept separate, the record of oper- 
ating expense serves as a guide for future operations, and 


- that of capital outlay indicates the value of the plant. 


Rigid observance of the principle upon which the dis- 


_ tinction is based would require that every piece of prop- 
-erty, whether purchased or constructed in the museum 
shop, be regarded as a physical asset and that its cost be 
charged to capital. However, the accounting necessary 
to keep track of the cost of shop products is regarded as 
cumbersome and therefore museums customarily count 


68 


EXPENDITURE 69 


the full cost of shop work as a part of operating expense. 
This is also true of expenditures for field work and other 
collecting activities that yield new objects for collections. 

Another exception is usually made in the case of small 
expenditures for purchase of minor additions to the col- 
lections or exhibits—these items being considered as a 
part of operating cost. ‘The assumption is that any ex- 
pensive accessions represent more or less fixed values, but 
that inexpensive ones do not. Distinction is also made 
between major and minor equipment as a rule. The 
former, which includes furniture, fixtures, machinery and 
other relatively costly and lasting additions to plant, 
is charged to capital. The latter, including tools and 
inexpensive office or exhibition appliances, for example, 
is best charged to an operating account. Comparable to 
this is the usual practice of charging purchases of books 
to capital while subscriptions to periodicals are charged 
to current funds—the distinction being based upon the 
fact that books represent single commitments, whereas 
periodicals entail expenditures which recur year after 
year. ‘These various suggestionsmay seem at first sight 
to complicate accounting problems, but in fact they sim- 
plify them. | ) 

The cost of keeping buildings and equipment in repair 
is chargeable to operating. This tends to keep up the 
plant without adding to its recorded value, and therefore 
compensates in part for failure to charge off depreciation 
each year as is done in business. 


FUNDS AVAILABLE FOR OPERATIONS 


It has already been pointed out that not all receipts are 
available for current expenses. Of public funds, for 
example, those derived from taxation may be applied to 
operations, but those raised through assumption of bonded 


70 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


indebtednessmay not. Dues of life members and members 
in perpetuity are customarily added to endowment,’ 
and any contributions or bequests made specifically 
towards endowment or capital for plant are also set 
aside. All other funds, however, are considered to be 
available for operations. Trustees frequently use a part 
of current income for a capital account, but money which 
has been impounded as capital may not properly be con- 
sumed for running expense. 

This chapter is devoted to expenditures for operations. 
The next two chapters take up in turn the outlay of capi- 
tal for plant and the preservation of capital as endowment. 


EXPENDITURES FOR OPERATIONS 


A classification of operating costs is shown in the list 
given below. ‘This array of items may seem to be out of 
proportion to the limited needs of a small museum, but 
as a matter of fact modesty in scale of work tends to de- 
crease the amount of expenditure in each of the classes, 
rather than to decrease greatly the variety of purposes 


_ for which commitments are made. A museum that is 
actively at work even in a small way, usually find its 
_ range of expenditure to be essentially as follows: 


10? Services 
II Salaries | 
14 Extra services—professional (honoraria) 
15 Extra services—clerical 
16 Extra services—labor 
18 Audit & bond 


t See page 35. 

2 The numbers prefixed to these items may be disregarded at this mee 
Reference is made to them in the chapter on accounting—pages 90 and 
95: 


20 


30 


40 


60 
90 


EXPENDITURE 71 


Maintenance 
21. Rent 
22 Repairs & replacements 


23 Insurance (on building and equipment) 
25 Heat 

26 Light 

27 Water 

General 

31 Freight, express & cartage 

32 Carfare & taxi. 

33 Telephone & telegraph 

34 Postage 

35 Stationery 

36 Supplies (including minor equipment) 
37 Minor accessions 

Printing 

41 Periodicals 

42 Books & papers 

43 Catalogs, labels, etc. 

44 Announcements, tickets, etc. 

48 Manifolding si 

49 Miscellaneous printing 

Travel & field work 


General & miscellaneous 


OI 


g2 
95 
98 
99 


Memberships & contributions to other or- 
ganizations | 
Subscriptions to periodicals 

Insurance on exhibits 

Entertaining 

Miscellaneous 


Expenditures for some of these purposes—salary, sup- 
plies and travel, for example—may be made in connec- 
tion with various branches of activity such as adminis- 


72 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


tration, care of building and grounds, educational work, 
library or work of a department of history, art or Sci- 
ence. Classification on this basis is treated in the chap- 
ter on accounts—page 90. 


SERVICES 


Adequate provision for salary is vital to the life and 
success of amuseum. In fact, a newly organized museum 
may profitably make its first substantial commitment for 
the salary of a trained director. Outlay for building 
and equipment cannot be expected to yield a proper return 
in usefulness unless able direction is provided. Even 
though—as is often the case—some enthusiastic collector 
or retired teacher or minister who has not had museum 
experience may be willing to take charge of a museum for 
small compensation or as a volunteer, there is no ultimate 
economy in accepting the service. With a trained direc- 
tor, volunteer associates may function effectively, but 
without professional leadership little can be accomplished. 

Salaries paid to directors are not as low as they are 
sometimes alleged to be. In many instances, untrained 
individuals in charge of museums receive small compen- 
sation, but persons competent to direct museum affairs 
effectively are able to command reasonable remuneration. 

The directorship of a museum is often likened to the 
presidency of a college. To be sure, there are many 
museums that are smaller than any college, and the 
directors of such little institutions ordinarily receive 
correspondingly small salaries. Museums of moderate 
size are comparable to small colleges, and large museums 
to large colleges. The minimum salary for which the 
services of a well trained director can be secured is prob- 
ably $2,500 or $3,000. Some quite small museums now 
pay $5,000 or more. 


EXPENDITURE 73 


The ideal solution of the salary problem is to be found 
in the employment of a consulting director. Small 
museums require the services of a highly trained person 
but few can offer opportunities to attract such an individ- 
ual. However, the joint directorship of several museums 
in the same county or state would interest many men of 
real ability, especially at this time, when cooperative 
developments are attracting nation-wide attention within 
professional circles. Five museums contributing $1,000 
apiece to the salary of a director who could move about 
from one institution to another, would yield able direc- 
tion for all. Under the supervision of such a person, a 
smaller salaried assistant could carry out the work in 
each museum. _ 

In addition to salary items, it is desirable to provide a 
small amount each year for honoraria of consultants and 
lecturers, and for other extra service. 


MAINTENANCE 


According to strict accounting practice, maintenance 
costs are made up only of repairs, replacements, and insur- 
ance on plants. They constitute a separate class of ex- 
penditures, entirely distinct from expenditure for opera- 
tions, since they represent the cost of keeping the plant 
intact. However, for museum purposes, it is better to 
include them with the other expenditures shown in the 
list, since all of these items are customarily, though erron- 
eously, referred to as maintenance. 

Insurance for museums is complicated by a number of 
difficulties. Many objects in collections are of little 
intrinsic worth although they may be irreplaceable. 
Others may be so valuable that to insure them would be 
prohibitive in cost. Furthermore a satisfactory type of 
policy to cover all of the various risks to which museum 


74 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


materials are exposed has never been developed by the 
insurance companies. Largely for these reasons, few 
museums have coverage for their permanent collections, 
although borrowed objects may be insured. Traveling 
collections are regularly protected, and the premium is 
usually divided between the several exhibitors. 

Buildings and equipment are replaceable properties 
and if a museum holds title to them, they should be ade- 
quately insured. Property in public ownership remains 
without coverage according to the practice in most places. 

Museums are not obliged to pay taxes because they are 
organized under the laws for corporations not for profit, 
which are tax-free. However, it is necessary to make 
special application for immunity. 


XVI 
PLANT 


PLANT consists of land, building, equipment, collections 
and books. Expenditure for plant is termed capital ex- 
penditure, or capital outlay, and the bulk of it is ordinar- 
ily from funds secured especially for the purpose either 
by the action of an official public body or by gift or 
bequest. 

In the business world it is customary for corporations 
to borrow capital by floating their own bonds, but in 
educational fields this is not done because, for the most 
part, the capital assets of eleemosynary corporations are 
not readily salable, and furthermore these assets are held 
in trust and the trustees have no right to borrow against 
them. 


LAND AND BUILDING 


A municipality, county or other public corporation 
may properly assume a bonded debt on behalf of a mus- 
eum, and acquire land and buildings for museum use. If 
this is not legally possible, an amendment to the city or 
county charter should be sought as explained further on 
in this chapter—page 77. Plant made available in this 
manner naturally does not pass into the ownership of 
the museum but remains public property. Further con- 
struction upon a building so financed may be made pos- 
sible by subsequent bond issues, and maintenance is 
commonly provided for by annual appropriations from 
tax funds. Park land is often set aside for a public mus- 
eum building, and, if the site is suitable, this arrange- 
ment is the ideal one. Under these circumstances it is 

75 


76 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


desirable for the museum and the city or county to enter 
into contract giving the museum possession so long as it 
continues to function as required by its incorporation 
and making such other provisions as seem necessary. 
The contract between The American Museum of Nat- 
ural History and the City of New York, which may serve 
as a model for smaller institutions, is reprinted in Appen- 
dix C. 

Figures are not available to show average outlay for 
museum plant on the part of communities of various sizes, 
but even if such statistics were compiled it is improbable 
that any degree of uniformity in practice would be shown 
except perhaps for large cities. If proper support is given 
for operations the need in land and building may be ex- 
pected to determine itself. 

If land is provided by the city and the building is to be 
erected by the museum with its own capital, a different 
problem is presented. The parallel to this, in a com- 
mercial field, is the erection of buildings on leased land. 
In such a case the usual protection offered to the lessee 
is tenure for a longer period than the productive life of 
the building, as, for example, by a ninety-nine year lease. 
Such tenure of public lands would be difficult for a city 
to grant although in practice a renewable grant for a 
short period almost always proves to be a permanent 
grant. 

A second form of protection for the lessee might be 
that of penalties upon the grantor in case of the termina- 
tion of the grant. Under this plan the city, in considera- 
tion of the readiness of the museum to erect a building of 
a certain value, would grant land for an indefinite period 
retaining the right to terminate the grant and repossess 
the property only upoa condition that it pay to the mus- 
eum the depreciated value of the permanent improve- 
ments—provision being made as to the method of apprais- 


PLANT a7 


ing this value. The grant would thus be a temporary one 
with full power of repossession by the city, but in prac- 
tice the penalty to repossess would be so severe that 
there is little chance that it would ever be exercised. If 
the relationship between the museum and the city should 
ever become so unsatisfactory as to make a termination 
of the relationship desirable, the museum would be pro- 
vided with substantial funds for re-location. 

If there is doubt as to the legality of any such contract 
between city and museum, it should be possible to remove 
it by amendment of the city charter through state legisla- 
tion. The following recent amendment to the civic char- 
ter of Buffalo is a good example: 


The Council of the City of Buffalo shall have discre- 
tionary authority to provide a site and furnish money 
for the construction and equipment, in all or in part, 
of a building for the use and occupancy of the Buffalo 
Society of Natural Sciences. Such a site may be pro- 
vided either by setting apart for such purpose land 
owned or acquired by the city for park or playground 
purposes, or by purchasing or otherwise acquiring land 
or property not previously devoted to a public use. 
The Council may provide the money for such site or 
building or equipment by the issuance and sale of its 
bonds in such amounts, for such terms, and at such 
a rate of interest as it may determine, and such bonds 
shall be issued and sold in the manner provided by 
this Chapter. 


EQUIPMENT 


Equipment is purchased with public capital in some 
instances, but more often it is acquired by the museum 
with its own funds. As already explained, small items 
of equipment are not usually purchased from capital 


78 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


but are charged to operating expense both for convenience 
and because such materials depreciate rapidly. 


COLLECTIONS AND BOOKS 


It is an accepted principle that the technical work of a 
museuni is to be carried on with funds derived from gifts 
and incomeonendowment. Usually, therefore, collections 
—including also exhibits and lending material—as well 
as books are the property of the museum rather than of 
the city, but this does not apply of course to municipal 
or state-owned museums or others which are supported 
entirely from public funds. 


XVII 
ENDOWMENT 


ENDOWMENT is “‘a fund, the principal of which is in- 
vested and kept inviolate and only the income used. . . . 
The fund thus established is sacred and should not be 
touched or encroached upon for any object whatsoever; its 
income alone is available.*’’ 

The following quotation from Arnett applies quite as 
well to museum as to college endowment. 


““College authorities frequently use the term endow- 
ment in a wrong sense, including under that name sums 
of money given for college buildings and land. A dona- 
tion for the erection ofa . . . building is not endow- 
ment, for, in the nature of things, the structure can- 
not last forever, and is in itself not income-producing. 

. some college administrators include in endow- 
ment certain funds, the principal of which, as well as 
the income, may be used. Ifthe principal is ever used, 
the fund of course is but temporary, and hence is not 
endowment. . 

“‘Colleges often receive gifts and bequests without 
condition. In such instances the trustees are war- 
ranted in using the principal, as well as the income, as 
they choose. They often decide to add these gifts 
and bequests to endowment, and then later justify the 
use of endowment as collateral for current loans, for 


tFrom page 24 of: Arnett, Trevor. College and university finance. 
New York, General Education Board, 1922, 212 pp. Extensive use which 
has been made of this book in preparing this chapter and the next is grate- 
fully acknowledged. 


79 


80 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


the erection of buildings, or for some other object, on 
the ground that it includes sums which were given 
without restriction as to use of principal. When this 
occurs the finances of the college are inextricably mixed, 
the inviolability of actual endowment is lost and the 
amount used in the manner described frequently ex- 
ceeds the amount of unconditional funds which were 
included. To obviate any such disaster, and to pre- 
serve rigidly the sacredness of real endowment, under 
no circumstances should any such donation be included 
in endowment unless it has been set aside as endow- 
ment by deliberate action of the trustees. Such action 
should be irrevocable, and the sum so included should 
henceforth be treated in the same manner as sums 
originally given as endowment. Once endowment, 
always endowment, is the only safe and clear rule.’’* 


It would be difficult to state in general terms the amount 
of endowment that is required. Many of the larger 
museums rely upon endowment for research work and 
acquisition of collections either in the field or by pur- 
chase. However, for a small museum it would seem that 
income on endowment might ideally be applied to, or at 
least be sufficient to sustain, those activities which most 
need stability, namely services of the staff as represented 
by salaries. In very few instances, however, is this situ- 
ation to be found. Some museums are supported en- 
tirely by endowment; others have no endowment at all. 
Either extreme is undesirable. Too much assured sup- 
port tends to produce lethargy and to alienate participa- 
tion of the public. On the other hand, if there is little 
assured income, undue stress is likely to be placed upon 
those who are responsible for the finances. 


t Ibid. p. 25-26. 


ENDOWMENT 81 


Endowment may be unrestricted or restricted. In 
other words, the income may be applicable to any use or 
it may be available for some designated purpose only. 
Unrestricted endowment naturally is more desirable. 

An endowment fund may appropriately be known by 
the name of its donor. In many instances, further rec- 
ognition is made by giving credit for purchases or activi- 
ties to which the income is devoted. For example, an 
object purchased for exhibition may be labeled: Pur- 
chased from the John Smith Fund. It is highly disadvan- 
tageous, however, for any museum to be identified as a 
whole with an individual, as explained in the chapter on 
naming the museum—page I9. 


SOURCES OF ENDOWMENT 


Endowment is derived chiefly from bequests and con- 
tributions, but any funds—except public moneys—which 
are not otherwise committed may be added to endow- 
ment. Some museums provide that all unconditional 
bequests become endowment automatically under a pro- 
vision of the by-laws. 

In order to indicate the exact corporate title and per- 
haps also in the hope of prompting bequests, a form is 
printed in the annual reports of many museums. A 
simple form is the following: 


I hereby give, devise and bequeath to the______. 
Museum the sum of —____..’ 


If the community trust plan, which is explained later 
in this chapter—page 86—is adopted, a longer form is 
required, and this should either be printed in the annual 


t Securities and other: property as well as cash may be presented or 
bequeathed to endowment. 


82 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


report or made available in draft for the use of anyone 
who is interested. * 

An effective means of creating endowment with a min- 
imum of sales resistance is to take interest-bearing notes, 
the principal of which may be paid at the option of the 
maker, or becomes due upon his decease. If membership 
in perpetuity is offered as one of the considerations in 
such a note, failure to pay the principal in full within one 
year after the death of the maker would break the con- 
tract and release the museum from continuing the mem- 
bership.?. The chief advantages of this plan are that 


t The form is as follows: 


Trust Company 


I give, devise and bequeath to the 
(or National Bank) the sum of $__ (to be known as the_—______ 
Memorial Fund), IN TRUST, for the public educational, charitable 
and benevolent uses and purposes and upon all of the terms and con- 
ditions contained and expressed in the Resolution and Declaration 
of Trust adopted by the Board of Directors of said Trust Company 
(or National Bank) on the day of _____ 10 rene te 

Community Trust, of which a copy is incorporated herein 
and set forth at the end of this paragraph, provided, however, that 
I desire that the net income thereof shall be expended in support of the 
work of the Museum. 


This phraseology, which has been determined upon by The New York 
Community Trust, may require minor modifications to apply to commun- 
ity trusts in other cities. In New York State the Resolution and Declara- 
tion of Trust need not be incorporated in the will. Reference to it as filed 
in the office of the Secretary of State at Albany and in the county office is 
sufficient. 

2 The following is a possible phrasing of the note: 


In consideration of the cancellation of my pledge as a 
Member of the ______.__-. Museum and of the agreement of said 
Museum to enroll my name as a Member in Perpetuity, 
and in further consideration of the participation by others in the endow- 
ment of said Museum and of expenditures made or to be made in reli- 
ance upon the endowment created by this and other notes, I promise to 
pay to the _______. Museum the sum of _________dollars with 
interest from ___________ att five per centum (5%) per annum, payable 
quarterly in advancgon the first day of January, April, July and October. 
The face of this note may be paid in full or in installments at my conven- 
ience, but unless previously paid in full, shall become due and payable 
upon my decease. The face of this note, when paid, shall be kept in- 
tact as a part of the General Endowment of the Museum, and the income 
st: without restriction to any of the corporate purposes of the 

useum. 


ete pela tel eS ee Bek IE ge ls aie ee 


2 Se 
zt 


ENDOWMENT 83 


it serves to cement the relations of a member to the 
museum and yields practically assured endowment with- 
out bearing so heavily upon the patrons of a museum that 
other contributions are necessarily forestalled. 

sums pledged to endowment should not be entered on 
the books as endowment until the pledges or notes are 
actually paid. Annual interest payments should be 
treated in the same way as the dues of an annual mem- 
ber until the principal is in hand. 

Endowment policies or regular life insurance policies 
offer means by which museums may be given substantial, 
though deferred, contributions through small regular 
payments. This possibility has been largely neglected in 
the past, but there are indications of an increasing ten- 
dency on the part of insurance representatives to empha- 
size the availability of life insurance for the purpose of 
setting up endowment funds for institutions. 


INVESTMENT OF ENDOWMENT 


Investment and reinvestment of endowment funds 
should concern every trustee of a museum. 


‘‘As endowments are established to provide perma- 
nent regular income, it is important that they be 
invested in such a way that the income shall be assured 
and the principal kept intact. Safety of principal is 
the first consideration; otherwise, the permanency of 


This form is used by The Cleveland Museum of Natural History to re- 


~ place an annual membership by a membership in perpetuity. If it were 


for the signature of a non-member, the first phrase would be omitted and 
the note would begin: In consideration of the agreement of the. 

Museum to enroll my name, etc. If the note were given for an amount too 
small to meet the minimum requirements of a membership in perpetuity, 
it would begin: In consideration of the participation of others in the endow- 
ment of the ______. Museum, etc. If the total of the annual interest 
is small it should, of course, be payable in one sum. 


84 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


the income may be endangered. The size of the in- 
come, though important, is secondary. The scale of 
expenditures expands quickly to equal an increasing 
income, but does not respond easily when income 
diminishes. It is, therefore, in the long run better to 
have a stable income, even if somewhat smaller than 
might be obtained temporarily, than to enjoy a larger 
income for a short period and later to be obliged to 
reduce expenses because of its curtailment.’’! 


Securities issued by the federal and state governments, 
obligations issued by cities having over 25,000 inhabitants 
and real estate mortgages on improved property are rec- 
ommended by Arnett as best investments for endowment. 


‘Investments of a purely speculative character, such 
as stocks of mining corporations and of new companies 
whose stability has not been demonstrated, are not 
suitable. As arule, common stocks should be avoided. 
If any exception is made, it should be in favor of well- 
established companies with a large margin of surplus 
and a regular dividend record covering a long period. 
Carefully selected first mortgage bonds and real estate 
first mortgages on improved farms in good localities, 
preferably in the same state as the college, or in con- 
tiguous states, and first mortgages on city property 
where the college is located, or in nearby cities, make 
proper investments. The proximity of the property 
mortgaged makes it easier to learn its value and to note 
any circumstances which might lead to its depreciation. 
Since real estate mortgages usually run from three to 
five years, no serious depreciation in value should occur 
in that time which was not foreseen by the trustees. 
Loans secured by mortgages should not exceed 50 to 60 
t Arnett, p. 32. 


ENDOWMENT 85 


per cent of the appraised value of the property. The 
value should be established by personal investigation 
by the college authorities, assisted, if necessary, by a 
person skilled in real estate values. The title should 
be examined by an attorney, and no loan should be 
made unless the title is clear, preferably guaranteed.’’! 


It is important also to diversify investment in order 
to distribute the risk and so practically to insure against 
sweeping financial reverses. 

There are two plans for investment of separate endow- 
ment funds: 


“Every fund may be invested separately; or funds 
may be invested as a whole, each fund sharing in the 
income in the ratio that it bears to the total of the funds. 
Reasons may be given in favor of each plan. Under 
the first, any profit realized on the investments bene- 
fits the fund to which they belong, but on the contrary 
any loss diminishes it. If it happen that the invest- 
ments yield a high rate of income the object for which 
the fund was given receives the advantage, while, con- 
versely, if the rate is low it suffers the disadvantage. 
Colleges do not always have freedom to choose which of 
the two methods they shall employ because donors 
sometimes stipulate that the fund given by them shall 
forever be kept separate and separately invested. 
Securities are sometimes given in which the trustees 
themselves would not invest, though the donor, through 
his knowledge of the circumstances affecting their value, 
thinks highly of them. It is better to carry such secur- 
ities in a separate account until they are paid or dis- 
posed of, and:the trustees have invested the proceeds 
in securities of their own selection. If any endow- 


tTbid. p. 33. 


86 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ment is of considerable size it may be invested separ- 
ately to advantage, but if it is small there is greater 
difficulty in keeping it fully invested. 

‘The second plan, viz., the combination of funds and 
their investment as a whole, has several arguments in 
its favor. In the first place, it obviates the necessity 
of keeping separate accounts and records to show 
the investments belonging to each fund; second, the 
cash uninvested consists of one sum and can be invested 
more readily; third, each fund receives the same rate 
of income; fourth, the rate of income is less likely to 
vary from year to year because of the amount and 
variety of investments; lastly, each fund is preserved 
from extinction because the losses and gains are divided 
among the funds pro rata, thus assuring the perpetua- 
tion of every fund unless it should prove that all invest- 
ments become of no value, a contingency in the highest 
degree improbable. 

‘‘From the foregoing it will be apparent that a college 
whose funds are at all numerous may probably use the 
two plans of investment simultaneously—the individ- 
ual method where the conditions of gift or circum- 
stances require it, and the group method in the case of 
all other funds.’’? 


DELEGATION OF RESPONSIBILITY 


If the trustees of a museum are not intimately familiar 
with financial management, the responsibility of investing 
and reinvesting endowment may advantageously be del- 
egated to a trust company. If this is to be done, the 
community trust plan should be considered, since it com- 
bines certain larger benefits with the convenience 
and efficiency which attach to the services of a trust 
company. 

t Arnett, p. 37-8. 


Pe ee ee Se Ne Oe ee ee 


ee eee a ee ee 


ENDOWMENT 87 


A community trust is a form of association between a 
group of reliable trust companies and national banks in 
a city, and a so-called distributing committee composed 
of citizens appointed by eminent leaders in the commun- 
ity. Its purpose is to administer endowments in such a 
way that the donor will know that the safety and wise | 
stewardship of his gift are assured, and also that never, 
so long as civilization shall endure, will the fund become 
useless and ridiculous by virtue of changing times and 
passing needs. In little more than a decade the plan 
has been put into operation in fifty-four cities. 

A fund may be given or bequeathed to a community 
trust for any specified purpose, such for example as the 
work of a designated museum or some particular branch 
of that work.' ‘The fund is thereby placed in the hands 
of one of the associated trust companies or banks which 
assumes responsibility for it. ‘The income is paid to the 
museum to be used under the terms of the gift, and so 
long as the purpose for which the endowment fund was 
created continues to be a legitimate and reasonable one, 
the plan goes no further. But if, after the passage of 
years, the museum should cease to exist, or its work 
should be so modified that the original purpose of the 
fund were stultified, then the distributing committee would 
have power to decide upon a related work to which the 
income could be devoted. There are many instances of 
endowments, rendered useless by the change of times, 
piling up funds in impotence while lawyers try intermin- 
ably to untie legal knots. The appeal to donors of the 
far-sighted community trust plan should in itself con- 
stitute a strong inducement for museums to employ it. 


t The form of gift or bequeathal is given in a footnote on page 82. 


fae ues ‘a g , ey 
Lan gt attetecrton, fh BPrctron OB At rd athact tethkicid AEA Cong 


g ‘ si * 
Lp nmanpp ge YU ¢ 
ht Mh trad COR fbn, “Colin 
é : f 
ee rar" ve fos gages Bite Age, bese rags 

_ 

gig 
Ste OCVALT 
» 
ACCOUNTS 
” nd rer TE 


se ateeininmemreremss eines 


THE financial records of a museum should be simple 
but not crude. Standard books are no more difficult to 
keep than improvised ones; in fact, they are likely to 
be much less troublesome in the long run. An account- 
ing system such as that about to be described involves 
very little routine work if transactions are few. It may 
seem to be cumbersome, but in practice it is entirely 
simple, and many of its features assume trivial propor- 
tions when applied to conditions in very small museums. 


THE RECORDS 


The following financial records are recommended: 


RECEIPTS REGISTER 


This is a bound book in which to enter a record of each 
payment received. Beginning at the left it has columns 
headed date, received from, amount, and fund, followed 
by a series of columns for income accounts corresponding 
to the various sources enumerated on page 56. The 
numbers as well as the names of accounts may advan- 
tageously be shown in these headings, since the numbers 
are employed as symbols for designating the accounts in 
other financial records. If desired for space economy, 
several related accounts may be carried in a single col- 
umn—the following column in every such case being 
reserved for notation of account numbers to identify the 
entries. By the same means, divisions of accounts may 
be differentiated. For example, 230 Dues of Members 
may be resolved into 231 Active, 232 Contributing, etc. 

The receipts register is used for all receipts except of 

88 


Sees Se ee ee ey ye es 
mm F 


ACCOUNTS 89 


endowment. It is generally considered undesirable for 
additions to endowment to be entered in the same book 
with receipts of funds which are available for disburse- 
ment or outlay, and therefore a separate book—the en- 
dowment cash book—is provided, as shortly to be ex- 
plained. 

To record a receipt in the register, the amount is entered 
in the amount column. If the money is intended for a 
special fund, the fact is noted in the column headed fund. 
The amount is then entered again in the column under 
the proper account heading to show the source from which 
it is derived, except that if two or more accounts are in- 
volved in one receipt, the component parts of the total 
are entered separately, each in its appropriate account 
column. 

When a bank deposit is made, a line is drawn across the 
amount column and a total struck. By carrying the total 
to the left margin, insertion of confusing sub-totals in the 
amount column may be avoided. This total should 
check with the deposit as recorded in the pass book or on 
a duplicate copy of the deposit slip receipted by the bank. 

A stock book may be used for the receipts register. 
Any good stationer carries a range of sizes from which 
one with at least the required number of columns may be 
selected. 


DISBURSEMENTS REGISTER 


This is a bound book in which to enter a record of each 
check drawn. Beginning at the left it has columns 
headed date, paid to, check number, amount and fund, 
followed by a series of perhaps a dozen columns for ex- 
pense accounts grouped by departments, as still to be 
explained. Alternating with these last should be col- 
umns in which to note alongside each entry the number 
of the account to which it applies. 


go MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


The following set-up of accounts is a possible one, but 
without changing it basically, it may be expanded or con- 
densed to suit the needs of an institution of any size. 
For a very small museum, many of the accounts would 
be dropped. Salary, for example, would probably appear 
only under Office & administration. 


EXPENDITURE FOR OPERATIONS— 


600 Office & administration 

611 Salaries 

614 Extra Services—professional (consul- 
tations, legal, etc.) 

615 Extra Services—clerical 

616 Extra Services—labor 

618 Audit & bond 

631 Freight, express & cartage 

632 Carefare & taxi 

633 Telephone & telegraph 

634 Postage 

635 Stationery 

636 Supplies | 

644 Announcements, tickets, etc. 

648 Manifolding 

661 ‘Travel 

691 Memberships & contributions to 
other organizations 

698 Entertaining 

. 699 Miscellaneous 
700 Building and grounds 

711 Salaries 

716 Extra services—labor 

721 Rent 

722 Repairs & replacements : 

723 Insurance (on building and equip- 
ment) 


800 


900 


IO0O 


. ACCOUNTS 


QI 


725 Heat 

726 Light 

727 Water 

731 Freight, express & cartage 

736 Supplies 

799 Miscellaneous 

Education 

811 Salaries 

814 Extra services—professional  (lec- 
turers fees etc.) 

832 Carfare & taxi 

835 Stationery 

836 Supplies 

837 Minor accessions 

848 Manifolding 

849 Miscellaneous printing 

861 Travel 

899 Miscellaneous 

Library 

QII_ Salaries | 

915 Extra services—clerical 

922 Repairs & replacements (including 
book binding) 

931 Freight, express, & cartage 

934 Postage — 

935 Stationery 

936 Supplies 

992 Subscriptions to periodicals 

999 Miscellaneous 

Membership & publicity 

IoI1 Salaries 

1032 Carfare & taxi 


1033 
1034 


‘Telephone & telegraph 
Postage 


92 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


1035 Stationery 

1036 Supplies 

1048 Manifolding 

1049 Miscellaneous printing 
1099 Miscellaneous 


1100 Preparation & exhibition (including 
photography) 
I111 Salaries 
1136 Supplies 
1199 Miscellaneous 


1200 Publications 
1241 Periodicals 
1242 Books & papers 
1243 Catalogs & labels 


2000 Department of History 
2011 Salaries 
2015 Extra services—clerical 
2036 Supplies 
2037 Minor accessions 
2061 Travel 
2062 Field work 
2099 Miscellaneous 


2100 Department of Art 
Same accounts, and: 
2195 Insurance on exhibits 


2200 Department of Science 
Same accounts as 2000 


OUTLAY FOR PLANT*— 


A 3 Equipment 
A 4 Collections 
A5_ Books 


t Accounts for land and building may be opened when, and if, needed. 


ACCOUNTS 93 


It will be observed that this classification repeats under 
several department headings, appropriate selections from 
the list of expense accounts given on page 70. The pre- 
fixed numbers are explained in connection with the ledger. 

To record a disbursement in the register, the amount 
is entered in the amount column. If the money is drawn 
from a special fund, the fact is noted in the column headed 
fund. The amount is then entered again in the column 
under the proper department heading and the account 
number is set down in the column alongside. If two or 
more accounts are involved in one disbursement, compon- 
ent parts of the total are entered separately, each in its 
appropriate department column and each with its account 
number adjacent. 

A stock book similar to the receipts register may be 
used for the disbursements register. 


ENDOWMENT CaAsH Book 

Endowment is kept in a separate bank account in order 
to avoid confusing it with other funds. For the same 
reason, receipts which represent additions to endowment, 
as well as receipts from sale of endowment securities, and 
disbursements growing out of investments and reinvest- 
ments of endowment funds, are recorded in a separate 
book. For a small endowment, few entries are likely to 
be made and a plain note book is quite sufficient. 


CHECKS 

Checks bound in books are not as satisfactory as loose 
ones, each bearing at the bottom a detachable stub with 
spaces for showing the purpose of the payment. The 
stub is intended to be torn off by the recipient, leaving a 
plain check to go through the bank. The advantage of 
such checks are that, first, the detachable stub explains 
the check and saves writing a letter of transmittal, sec- 


94 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ond, the checks may be typewritten since they are not 
bound in a book, third, carbon copies may be made for 
the files to take the place of separate vouchers, and 
fourth, these copies are more dependable than ordinary 
check stubs since the latter, being made out independ- 
ently by hand, may conceivably be in error. 

The use of voucher checks, having inseparable stubs, is 
declining. Banks do not favor the odd sizes in which 
such checks are made, and there is a certain accounting 
objection to them on the ground that they promote 
incompleteness of financial record by encouraging discard 
of supporting papers. 

It is proper, if desired, that the treasurer or his alter- 
nate countersign checks on the signature of the director. 
Ordinarily, however, the signature of the director is 
enough. 


VOUCHERS 


A voucher is a blank form upon which all the facts 
concerning a payment are noted, and to which invoices 
or other supporting papers may be attached for filing. 
If loose checks with stubs, such as those recommended 
above are used, the carbon copy makes an ideal voucher. 
For economy, a blank sheet of the size*of check and stub 
together may be employed in the place of a printed 
duplicate form. 

Each voucher should be initialed by the person having 
first-hand knowledge of the details. The vouchers should 
be filed in numerical order and to them the original checks 
should be attached after they have passed through the 
bank. 


LEDGER 


A standard double-entry, loose-leaf ledger is best. By 
the use of colored sheets inserted after any regular white 


ACCOUNTS 95 


sheet, an account may be divided to show any desired 
analysis of its items—the total of subordinate accounts 
equaling the total of the control account. This plan is 
especially useful in separating transactions relating to 
restricted funds. 

Use of the ledger in accounting for operations, plant 
and endowment is explained in several subsequent sec- 
tions of this chapter. Whatever its nature, every fund 
restricted to a special purpose should be carried in a sep- 
arate account. Impairment of special funds by pooling 
with general funds has been all too common. 

As already indicated, accounts are usually numbered 
in order to facilitate reference to them in the records, 
and also to provide a key to arrangement of sheets in the 
ledger. When numbers are assigned the following rules 
may well be observed: 

1. Numbers should differentiate between asset, liabil- 
ity, income and expenditure accounts as follows, for 
example: 


ay ge os sts A1toA59 
Wt ee ee eee ss L 60 to L 99 
es ccc a sels eee 100 to 599 
ES ar 600 and up 


Although the letters prefixed to asset and liability ac- 
counts are not essential, they are helpful in distinguishing 
these accounts at a glance. 

2. Numbering for expenditure accounts should em- 
ploy hundreds for major groups, such as departments and 
special funds, and tens and units for the divisions—the 
last two digits of a number having the same significance 
wherever used. Thus in the list of accounts suggested, 
11 stands for salaries. Salaries for Office & administration 
are 611; for Library, 911. Some accounts, such as heat 


96 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


or light, may appear in only one department, but others 
are likely to occur in nearly all. 

3. When first assigning numbers, it is desirable to 
skip some in order to provide for interpolation of new 
accounts. On the other hand, consecutive numbers may 
be used where the list is believed to be in final form, and 
they must be used of course where there are just enough 
to go around. 

4. If practicable, the numbers 9 and 90 should be 
reserved or given the significance of miscellaneous or other, 
to provide indefinitely for unforeseen needs. 


CaRD LEDGER OF MEMBERS AND CONTRIBUTORS 


Instead of a colored ledger page for the subordinate 
account of each individual member or contributor, a small 
file card may better be used. The file of these cards, 
which is usually called the membership ledger, may also 
serve as the official list of members’ names and addresses. 
A standard 5 by 3 inch card is large enough. It should be 
ruled into columns for debit, credit, date and remarks, and 
marginal colored tabs may be employed to visualize the 
status of the account on each,card. A patent visible file 
with colored signals is ideal. 


PETTY CASH SLIPS 

Small cash disbursements may be made from a petty 
cash fund of $10 or more, and each is recorded on a so- 
called petty cash slip. When the fund nears exhaustion, 
the accumulated items are totalled and a check drawn to 
reimburse the fund—all the supporting slips being at-_ 
tached to the voucher, upon which an analysis of the items 
is noted for posting in the ledger in due course. 

For any cash disbursement of more than perhaps $5, a 
separate check should be drawn and cashed. However, 


ee 
i aaa : 


ACCOUNTS 97 


most disbursements of this size are made by check drawn 
to the creditor. 


JOURNAL 


The old-fashioned journal was a sort of planning book 
in which a bookkeeper, for the purpose of organizing his 
thoughts, set down the debit and credit for each entry to 
be made in his books. ‘This practice is obsolete. The 
journal is now used to set forth entries which do not orig- 
inate in the receipts or disbursements registers, such for 
example as gifts of securities, transfers between accounts 
and corrections of errors. 

Loose journal slips are recommended because they are 
more convenient than the pages of a bound book for 
attachment of supporting schedules or documents that 
are associated with many entries. The slips are num- 
bered and filed in sequence. 


LisT OF INVESTMENTS 


As a supplement to the endowment cash book and the 
ledger accounts of endowment, a card list of investments 
should be made. Each security should be described and 
its cost and par value noted. Obsolete cards which are 
eliminated from the current file should not be destroyed. 


INVENTORY OF PLANT 


As a supplement to the ledger accounts of purchased 
plant, a descriptive summary of al] plant should be kept 
under headings: land, building, equipment, collections and 
books. Items which represent cash transactions should 
be listed first under each heading and should have nota- 
tions of cost which check with the ledger; additions to 
plant by gift should be listed next under each heading 
and may have notations of appraised value. Equipment 
may well be itemized fully. Collections and books need 


98 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


not be recorded in detail but may be entered as follows: 
accession numbers and cost of purchases, accession num- 
bers and appraised values of important gifts, monthly 
lump estimates of the value of other gifts. 

This inventory is very easy to keep, and is exceed- 
ingly useful at the time of making an annual report. 


ACCOUNTING FORMS 


The only accounting form essential for all museums is 
the bil]. Bills for accounts other than membership should 
be made out in duplicate and the carbons retained as 
memoranda. Bills for membership may be stamped or 
printed but copies of these need not be made since record 
of them is preserved by presence of the cards in the 
membership ledger. Letters, not bills, are usually em- 
ployed to solicit renewals of subscriptions. 

Bill forms may also be used as receipts. 

Museums having annual operating expenses of perhaps 
$25,000 or more should use requisitions and purchase 
orders so that accurate record may be kept of commit- 
ments as well as of actual’ disbursements. However, the 
use of these forms by smaller institutions is not recom- 
mended because of the routine involved. 


ACCOUNTING FOR OPERATIONS 


Current operations are charged to the accounts shown 
in the disbursements register. It will bear repeating 
that transactions under restricted funds should be charged 
to separate accounts—one for each fund. If each of 
such restricted fund accounts is divided in the ledger 
into any desired number of subordinate accounts which 
correspond to the unrestricted operating accounts, it 
becomes a simple matter to combine records of disburse- 


ACCOUNTS 99 


ments from restricted funds with those from unrestricted 
funds for purposes of analysis or report. 


ACCOUNTING FOR PLANT 


As already indicated, there should be an account for 
each class of property purchased by a museum: land, 
building, equipment, collections and books. 

The first two of these are not regularly active. When 
building is in progress, subordinate building accounts 
are sure to be needed, but when construction is finished 
the total of expenditures should be closed into the con- 
trol account and disposition made of any deficit or bal- 
ance. Public land or a publicly owned building occupied 
by a museum is not accounted for in any way. If, how- 
ever, a museum expends public capital for construction 
which, of course, becomes public property, an entirely 
separate ledger should be opened for the accounts in order 
that they may not be confused with the museum’s own 
financial records. 

The accounts for equipment and collections are rela- 
tively active as a rule, and therefore they may require 
standing subordinate accounts, corresponding to the vari- 
ous museum departments: history, art and science, per- 
haps. Books are carried in one account because all of 
them are assigned to the library, even though some may 
be for exclusive use by one or another curator. 

It is not customary to charge off depreciation of plant 
as is done in business. This would be meaningless in the 
case of irreplaceable property, and it would be needless 
in the case of property provided by gift and to be 
replaced only by gift. Furthermore, unless there is special 
endowment for upkeep of the property, depreciation 
would have to be set aside from current income, and every 
gift would impose upon the trustees the immediate obli- 


100 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


gation of accumulating from current income a fund ade- 
quate to replace it for all time. Manifestly this would 
be unfair, and hence the proper course is to show what 
goes into plant, writing it off only when the property is 
abandoned. Arnett says: 


“Plant should be carried on the books at cost, and 
the amount thus carried should equal and account in 
detail for all funds used in acquiring it. . . . In case 
any of the plant were offered for sale, the price placed 
upon it would depend largely upon what could be 
obtained for it, and not upon the value given on the 
books. Therefore, to carry it at cost is the logical 
method.’’? | 


However, it may be noted parenthetically that in the 
case of property in which endowment funds are invested 
provision must be made for charging depreciation against 
current income to prevent the depletion of endowment. 
This is considered presently. 

All of the foregoing discussion applies to records of cash 
transactions—purchases of additions to plant. Gzfis of 
objects, books or any property other than cash or secur- 
ities are not recognized in the accounts proper, although 
a memorandum of them should be made in the inventory 
of plant. 

As previously explained, collections and exhibits that 
are of small cost and any that are acquired through field 
work or are prepared in the museum’s shop, need not be 
put on the books as a part of the plant. The cost of 
acquiring them is simply paid out of current funds. It 
would make the accounts more complete to charge over 
to capital funds the cost of shop and field products, but 


t Arnett, p. 55. See reference in footnote on page 79. 


ACCOUNTS IOI 


the slight gain would hardly justify the trouble of keep- 
ing records of time and material. 


ACCOUNTING FOR ENDOWMENT 


If a museum’s endowment is either entirely unrestricted 
or all restricted to a single purpose, it is invested as a 
whole and is carried on the ledger in one account. Other- 
wise the method of accounting depends upon that adopted 
for investing, as explained in the chapter on endowment— 
page 85. Every fund which is invested separately must 
have its own separate account. All uninvested balances 
are ordinarily deposited in a single bank account—one for 
endowment only—and ledgered in one account with a sub- 
ordinate account for each special fund represented. Sales 
of endowment securities and reinvestments occasion re- 
ceipts and disbursements which are entered first in the 
endowment cash book. 


“Investments of endowment should be entered on 
the books at cost. In this manner the funds can be 
fully and accurately accounted for. The following 
equation should always be maintained: Endowment 
investments at cost plus endowment cash awaiting 
investment should always equal total of endowment. 

‘One principle must be kept constantly in mind, 
namely: . . . accounts should be the record of actual 
transactions. If securities are entered at par value, 
as is often the case, it may be difficult to account fully 
for endowment funds, and the equation given above 
is not preserved.’’? 

“Preservation of the principal being a most essen- 
tial feature of endowment, gifts of securities and prop- 
erty should be accepted at their market value at the 
date of gift. If that value cannot be ascertained read- 


t Ibid. p. 35-36. 


102 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ily, a competent person, or persons, should be asked 
to estimate their value as of that date. . 

‘‘Real estate is often given for endowment, which, 
in the course of time, increases in value because of 
changing conditions. Even in these, as in other cases, 
it should be carried on the books at its real value at 
the time when it was given, and no change should be 
made except to record expenditures for additions and 
improvements, which increase the value of the prop- 
erty. Buildings will of course depreciate in the course 
of time and become valueless. Provision for the dimin- 
ishing value must be made each year by charging its 
amount against income so as to keep endowment 
intact. 

‘“‘Cognizance should not be tater, of any increase in 
value in real estate not actually realized by sale. When 
the property is sold and the profit actually in hand, 
the endowment should be augmented by the amount 
of the profit. The figures on the books should at all 
times represent actual transactions and should not be 
modified to record estimates of changing value.”* 

‘The amount of endowment should remain un- 
changed from year to year except as it may be aug- 
mented by additional gifts or by profits realized from 
the sale of investments or diminished by losses incurred 
in disposing of them.’’* 


BUDGETS 


Before the beginning of each fiscal year, the director 
should prepare itemized estimates of income and expen- 
diture for the year. These estimates are subject to revi- 
sion by the trustees, and upon adoption by them become 
the budgets upon which all transactions should be based. 


t Arnett, p. 29-31. 2Tbid. p. 37. 


ACCOUNTS 103 


The budgets are subject to revision by the trustees either 
to take account of unexpected changes in estimated in- 
come, or, if the director has not the authority, to readjust 
appropriations between expense accounts. 

The budget of income should be conservative; only 
reasonably assured income may properly be included. 
The budget of expense should not exceed assured income 
in its total. Every museum has boundless opportunity, 
but its work must be limited by its means. In fact a 
margin of safety is usually provided by making a certain 
expense appropriation to a so-called contingent fund. 
This fund is really a tentative reserve from which no 
expenditures are made, but from which amounts may be 
transferred to other budget accounts by action of the 
trustees. A deficit in some account may have to be made 
good in this way, and therefore the contingent fund is 
seldom molested before the end of the fiscal year. 

The itemization of the budgets should correspond to 
the set-up of income and expense accounts. Elaborate 
department budgets to which salary items and other 
fixed expenses are distributed are not necessary, but items 
of expenditure in which more than one department 
of a museum is concerned are best split up into depart- 
ment budgets following the lines of the set-up of expense 
accounts. In this way curators may be relieved of com- 
peting for shares of a general fund. 

The means which are employed for exercising budget 
control should be as simple as the scale of operations 
allows. For strict control of very active accounts, compar- 
ison should be made between budget and disbursements 
plus commitments, since disbursements alone do not ne- 
cessarily show the true state of affairs. The proper way 
to provide for such a comparison at any time is to keep a 
memorandum record in a book or on file cards—charging 
commitments to their accounts as they are incurred, and 


104 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


taking note of unexpended balances. This system re- 
quires that entries be checked up when disbursements are 
made in order that discrepancies between anticipated 
cost and actual cost may be detected and allowance 
made. 

However, such budget control is unnecessarily involved 
for most small museums. Direct comparison of each 
monthly statement of receipts and disbursements—a 
statement described in the close of this chapter—with 
the budget, yields sufficient information for practical 
purposes. 


THE MONTHLY REPORT 


Each month the executive committee should require a 
memorandum report of receipts and disbursements, — 
which may be cast in the form of an eight-column state- 
ment, as follows: 


. 


' ' 
m< % oS 3 ie © >» s&s 
2§ | 38 | Ss | S81] €3 | Ss | ees eee 
Ss 8 a oS SES a8 ya OS 28 Ss 
Sod Nae PCE, bce esa S38 S. | 25S Pees 
oN gas | eS | 8 yx me | AES | ASE 


i | | 
ee | | 


THE ANNUAL REPORT 


There are two fundamentally different points of view 
in accounting. The first is that of the auditor, who is 
concerned primarily with tracing all income into dis- 
bursements or balances; the second is that of the execu- 
tive, who is concerned not only with this, but also with 
soundness and efficiency of the work which is accounted 
for. Both viewpoints are recognized in any useful 
accounting system and both should be brought out in the 


ACCOUNTS 105 


annual report. If the viewpoint of the auditor be pre- 
eminent—as frequently it is—a report conveys slight 
information about the work which it represents, and if 
published, holds little of value even for those who are 
interested. 

A proper annual report has four parts, and customarily 
is prefaced by an introductory statement which surveys 
the financial situation and compares it to that of the pre- 
vious year or years. The parts of the report are:' 


BALANCE SHEET 


This should show in summary the assets and liabilities 
of the museum under the three main headings: endow- 
ment, plant and operating accounts. The balance sheet 
gains in significance if presented in comparative form, 
showing conditions at the beginning and the end of the 
year. 


STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FoR 
OPERATIONS 


In this statement it is important that a clear picture 
of the work be given by proper itemization. 


LIsT OF GIFTS 


This is a list of gifts of cash and securities only. Gifts 
of other property are included in the inventory of plant. 


EXPLANATORY SCHEDULES 


A number of explanatory schedules are usually ap- 
pended to set forth the details which enter into certain 


t Arnett (pages 106-115) has been followed in this discussion because his 
analysis, though of college reports, is also descriptive of the best practice 
followed by museums. Preparation of the annual report may well be 
guided by the auditor, upon whom the director should be able to lean for 
information such as that given in considerable detail by the author cited. 


106 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


items in foregoing portions of the report. Footnotes 
are used to make references to the items explained. The 
following schedules are required by most reports: 


ENDOWMENT INVESTMENTS—A list of securities in which 
endowment is invested, showing the cost (book value) 
and par value of each. 

INVENTORY OF PLANT—a classified summary of purchased 
property constituting plant, with notation of cost. 
The total of costs should account exactly for the value 
of plant as shown in the balance sheet. Separately 
under each heading, property received by gift and 
its appraised value may be shown. This schedule 
is a very brief summary of the recorded inventory 
of the plant. It should not contain long lists of 
gifts. 

REPORTS OF SPECIAL Funps—statements of receipts and 
disbursements separately for each special fund. In 
the general statement of receipts and disbursements, 
special fund transactions are distributed to various 
accounts; in this schedule they are segregated—fund 
by fund. 


STATISTICAL SUMMARY 


It is exceedingly important to museums throughout 
the country that their combined financial experience be 
known. If a majority of published annual reports were 
in proper form it would not be difficult to compile statis- 
tics each year, but as it is, few of them show all of the 
main facts. In an effort to secure comparable summaries 
for collation, The American Association of Museums an- 
nually sends the following blank form to each of its insti- 
tution members, with a request that the indicated facts 
be reported. 


ACCOUNTS 


FINANCIAL STATISTICS FOR PUBLICATION 


Covering fiscal year ending: 
Museum: 

INCOME 
Unrestricted 


ef Avie Goa wk gis stew bias « $ 
eG ig a ive ve han ees ic 
ee ee ek wp wares ws 
Income on endowment................ 
Bequests, contributions, dues.......... 
From other sources....... BUT aire bod di 


Restricted to use for land, building, equipment 


Rg i God oid as # ob ewe « $ 
IS ee 
ME ek he ec ce ns 
Income on endowment................ 
Bequests, contributions, dues.......... 
Merete Sources, 26. eo ee we 


Restricted to purchase of collections 


PO oh le be ele ees $ 
8 Sl a 
eee ee 
Income on endowment................ 
Bequests, contributions, dues.......... 
PePOUIE, SQUTICES. 0.002. cw ce ep eee 


eee Tet aNCOMIC, .. i. hc ee ee ee eee 
Additions to endowment during year............. 


PP ENGCOMIG yc ec eee a lees 


EXPENDITURE 


MME aa dacs bieia's Sie ee een a ae 
For purchase of land, building, equipment......... 
For purciase of collections, books................ 

MEP SENOILUTC( 4o 0 cs sae eas dees 


To THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF MUSEUMS, 


HEADQUARTERS AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


WASHINGTON, D. C. 
Date: By: 


107 


108 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Whatever the system of accounts in use, these facts 
should be easily ascertainable, and it is hoped that in- 
creasing numbers of museums will render annual state- 
ments and that ultimately a substantial body of useful 
information may be collected. 


XIX 
OFFICE METHODS 


PROMPTNESS and efficiency are just as important in the 
office work of a museum as of a business. That the staff 
is over-burdened is not an excuse for crude methods and 
delinquency; rather it is a reason for efforts towards 
greater effectiveness. With certain minimum equip- 
ment, a few simple methods and some part-time clerical 
help, even the smallest museum should be able to conduct 
its office work in a business-like way and at small expense. 


CORRESPONDENCE 


All letters should be typewritten, and carbon copies 
kept. The cheapness of a rebuilt typewriter and the 
ease with which anyone can learn to operate a machine 
would seem to make unnecessary the practice of corre- 
spondence in long-hand. Files are essential. All letters 
should be put in one alphabetic series under the name of 
the person whose signature appears on an incoming letter 
or to whom an outgoing letter is addressed. It will be 
found convenient to make an index card for each organ- 
ization that is represented and to list on it the names of 
individuals therein, with whom correspondence has been 
held. 

A follow-up system should be adopted for several pur- 
poses: to bring letters to the notice of proper persons, to 
check up on replies to letters that are dispatched, to 
assure required attention at future dates to letters that are 
received, and to keep record of all correspondence on par- 
ticular subjects. A very simple system is one which em- 
ploys the two stamps shown in Plate 6. These stamps are 

109 


110 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


set on any letter or carbon copy which represents un- 
finished business. 

Use of the stamp at the left, which is for the first 
purpose mentioned above, is explained in the plate. The 
stamp at the right serves the other three purposes. 
If on a certain date the reply to a letter should be in hand 
or something further should be done about a letter already 
received, that date is jotted in the square. Incidentally, 
it saves trouble to mark all letters for follow-up on 
Mondays, since this practice calls the system into opera- 
tion only oncea.week. Ifaletter relates to a subject upon 
which all the correspondence may be desired later, a word 
which suggests the subject is noted in the square. Each 
letter so stamped is then recorded by name and date on 
a sheet headed by the key-date or key-word which it 
bears—all letters with the same date or the same word 
being listed on one sheet. Letters should then be filed 
and the follow-up sheets consulted every Monday morn- 
ing. This system is economical of time and precise in its 
working. 


MEMORANDA 


Unsystematic memoranda can make a great deal of 
trouble. A good plan is to use only two sizes of scratch 
stationery—letter size for extensive memoranda or man- 
uscript and 5 by 3 inch for all short notes. If memoranda 
are made horizontally on the little slips, with ‘a separate 
slip for each subject, the notes are interchangeable with 
cards in index drawers and are convenient in many other 
respects. : 


DEVICES 


An addressing machine is almost a necessity for_mail- 


| ing circulars, notices and publications to members if the 


PLATE 6 


THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF MUSEUMS 


HEADQUARTERS AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 


April 15, 1927 


To The Reader: 

By using two rubber stamps, such as those set at 
the top of this letter, you may assure proper attention 
to your office correspondence with the greatest of ease. 

The stamp at the upper left corner is used to route 
letters around the office before they are filed. The no- 
tations in the squares indicate that Mr. P. has read this 
letter and passed it on to D.R., who acknowledged it on 
April 19. Mr. J. has still to see the correspondence. 

The stamp at the upper right corner is used to 


make sure that letters representing unfinished business 


are not filed and forgotten. The notation in the square 


indicates that on May 2 this letter is to be taken out of 
the files for further reference or action. The accompany- 
ing text explains how the file clerk, your secretary or 


you yourself may keep a simple follow-up record. 


os 


FOLLOW-UP STAMPS AND THEIR USE. 


ae OFFICE METHODS 111 


a Hone one. A machine using mete metal al stencils is best. 
local dealer Cannot make stencils, they may be 
red by mail without delay. 

A mimeograph is useful to save printer’s bills. Atten- 
n is called in another chapter—page 293—to use of the 
. mimeograph for producing serial publications and even 


~ boo 


XX 
PROGRAM 


THE trustees of every museum should have a well con- 
sidered program looking many years ahead, and they 
may profitably have it committed to paper since few 
operations are as clarifying to thought as that of writing. 
From time to time, the plans are sure to require modifi- 
cation but however tentative they may be, they should 
be developed. An unchartered course leads nowhere. 

The foundation of a rational program is clear defini- 
tion of field and scope. Its importance cannot be over- 
emphasized. From this footing plans should be built 
along lines which museum experience has shown to be 
sound. Succeeding chapters bear upon the various fac- 
tors that are involved. 

It is highly desirable that the work of every museum be 
adapted to local conditions—the character of the region 
and of its people. Local occupations, organizations and 
interests, attitudes of public leaders, aims of school 
authorities—all such elements deserve study to the end 
of finding guidance in mapping field and scope and pro- 
jecting educational work. A discussion of the process 
of adapting library work to a community, which is sug- 
gestive of methods for solving analogous museum prob- 
lems, is to be found in Part I of Wheeler’s The Library and 
the Commumity.* 

During the first year, a nucleus of collections should be 
formed and policies laid down to govern further acquisi- 
tions. 


t Wheeler, Joseph L. The library and the community. Chicago, 
American Library Association, 1924, 417 pp. 
112 


PROGRAM 113 


Temporary exhibitions of borrowed objects are con- 
venient to supplement the slender resources of exhibition 
material which are all that a museum is likely to have in 
its own possession for a time, and such exhibitions have 
the further advantage of making a showing while the 
problem of permanent exhibits is being studied. 

Full recognition should be given from the start to the 
fact that museum work does not consist solely of mak- 
ing collections and providing for their exhibition. Mus- 
eum service may be built up at the same time that collec- 
tions are being developed. However modest the activ- 
ities, it is important that a museum be identified in terms 
of them. ‘There should be early provision for school serv- 
ice; it is better to serve only one classroom than not to 
make a beginning, since this work is very productive of 
public support. Other activities for children and educa- 
tional work for adults should not be neglected. It is bet- 
ter to do a little work along each of several important 
lines than to mature one to the exclusion of others. Sym- 
metrical development is healthy development. 


The course by which administrative work is to be ad- | 
vanced also requires study. Ordinarily, a museum is not. | 
brought into being in response to popular demand. More \ 


often ett is the creation of a few, and public recognition 
follows | “accomplishment. The first financial problems 
are usually solved by a group of supporters, each of whom 
pledges contributions for three or five years. A cam- 
paign for funds, which might be unsuccessful at the very 
outset, is in order when recognition has been won. Then 
also public support may be sought with confidence. Reg- 
ular publicity is an important supplement to effective 
‘work. To supplement newspaper publicity, it may be 
found possible to start publication of a bulletin—if only 
a four-page one, appearing quarterly or at longer intervals. 

Although some institutions acquire buildings at the 


aereeenetnar A TTI 


114 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


outset, many do not, and with these the tendency is 
strongly toward operating from temporary quarters for a 
time. However the building problem should not be 
neglected until it forces itself to hurried attention. Ten- 
tative plans are helpful in crystallizing ideas which in 
turn influence directions of growth. If ultimate require- 
ments are predetermined, purchases—especially of equip- 
ment—may be made with reference to the future as well 
as immediate needs and each step may represent direct 
progress towards the goal. 

It is important that no museum undertake to work in 
isolation at any period of its career. Cooperation with 
other museums in the same region is very important, but 
the fact that all museums throughout the country may be 
helpful to each other is not to be overlooked. A channel 
of contact with the movement as a Weel is The American 
Association of Museums. 

The purpose of these paragraphs, it will be observed, 
is not to lay down a course of development for all mus- 
eums, but to suggest the vital need of studying each insti- 
tution individually and of projecting its future. The 
leadership of a trained director is the best assurance of 
progress. 


FONE SR aay ne oe ee ee 


a 


XXI 
TEMPORARY QUARTERS 


THE problem of building may advantageously be held 
under consideration until a museum has had time to 
explore its opportunities, to make constructive begin- 
nings in various lines of work, and to establish itself 
somewhat in the public mind as an institution which 
deserves support. When these preliminary steps have 
been taken, housing requirements will have been deter- 
mined quite definitely, and plans may be drafted to meet 
them. Also the cooperation of local officials may be 
enlisted more easily after an institution has become 
known than at the beginning of its career, and as a result 
the chances of persuading the local government to fur- 
nish land and a building—as shortly to be explained—are 
less remote. | 

During the initial period, temporary quarters may be 
secured, sometimes at little or no expense. Space in a 
public building, such as a county clerk’s office, city hall, 
court house or schoo!, may be available. In fact laws in 
some states require that accommodations be provided by 
local or county authorities, and as may be learned from 
Appendix D, occupancy of such quarters for a stated 
period may enable a museum to qualify for public support. 
Many museums locate in public library buildings. If the 
arrangement is temporary it may be excellent; if it is 
permanent, however, it is to be deprecated for reasons 
which have been mentioned and which will be fortified 
in subsequent chapters. A museum may advantageously 
begin its career in a library, but sooner or later it should 
remove or find itself evicted. 

115 


116 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


A residence is usually better than a public building for 
temporary use. If an old home is standing idle it may 
perhaps be leased at nominal rental. In one city such a 
property was transferred to a museum for a consideration 
of one dollar, with an agreement to reverse the transac- 
tion within ten years. In this way the owner was relieved 
temporarily of paying taxes, and the museum secured 
quarters without rent or taxes. 

Occasionally a first home may be secured by taking 
advantage of the threatened destruction of some historic 
house. Public pride and generosity will rally to the pres- 
ervation of a landmark, and in such a property a museum 
may find for itself temporary quarters and also an impor- 
tant permanent possession. which in due course may be 
restored and preserved as a branch exhibit. Under favor- 
able conditions the ultimate home of the museum might 
be developed in relation to an old one of this kind—as a 
setting for a gem. 


TEMPORARY ALTERATIONS 


A few alterations in almost any room will fit it after a 
fashion for exhibition purposes. However, as a prelim- 
inary, floors should be inspected to determine whether 
they are equal to the loads that are to be imposed. 

Chandeliers should be taken down, and any elaborate 
ornaments removed or covered. If the lower sashes of 
windows can be boarded up without darkening a room 
unduly, the usual arrangement of high windows in mus- 
eum exhibition rooms may be approximated. Walls may 
be covered with burlap or other fabric held by beading 
along top and bottom. If there is no objection to damag- 
ing wall surfaces, a coat of green or red stain may be 
put on the plaster or wall paper before the cloth is stretched 
over it. This gives a tone of excellent quality. Floors 
may be covered with a plain linoleum. 


A 
* 


4 
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THE BROOKLYN CHILDREN’S MUSEUM, WHICH HAS ESTABLISHED 
RESIDENCE, 


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‘ TEMPORARY QUARTERS | 117 
_ Cases and other equipment purchased for temporary 
quarters should be selected for their ultimate rather than 
their immediate use. If the future is studied carefully, a 
museum may have many items of equipment and exhibits 
ready to be installed in a permanent building when the 
time arrives. 


er. 


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XXII 
ACCESSION POLICIES 


ACCESSION of objects for museum collections and 
exhibits should be regulated by staunch policies. To 
keep out material which does not contribute to estab- 
lished plans and to avoid serious limitation through 
conditions of gift are major problems for every museum, 
but they are doubly important to a small museum which 
may quickly be snowed under or easily rendered help- 
less. 

On most occasions a discriminating director needs no 
more than sound policy to guide or support his judgment, 
but from time to time it is necessary to pass formally 
upon a case by calling the accession committee of the trus- 
tees into action. This course is usually prescribed if 
expenditure is involved. Museums of art purchase a 
majority of the objects which they acquire and there- 
fore it is the regular practice for the committee to pass 
on accessions. Museums of science, and especially of 
history, acquire most of their collections through gift or 
field work, and there is so little for a committee to do that 
in most instances one does not exist. For a general mus- 
eum the best practice seems to be that of requiring com- 
mittee action only upon accessions by purchase and such 
others as the director may bring up for advice or assist- 
ance. 


SOURCES OF MATERIAL 


It should not be necessary for a small museum to make 
many purchases, but discriminating and judicious buy- 
ing is desirable within limits. In small communities if 

I2I 


122 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


objects are acquired locally at a price, many gifts are fore- 
stalled. Important antiquarian material is to be found 
discarded in the attics of every town, and if a museum 
becomes established in the confidence of the people, 
heirlooms make their way to its collections in a steadily 
swelling stream. Archeological and ethnological objects 
are brought home by returning travellers and are gath- 
ered by local collectors who may ultimately seek a per- 
manent repository for them. Beautiful, though perhaps 
not rare and costly, works of art are also frequently avail- 
able and some may be secured by gift. Old masters are 
beyond the reach and also perhaps beyond the needs of 
most small museums, but good reproductions of them 
may be had. Science collections also gravitate to a mus- 
eum, and local collecting activities which the museum it- 
self may organize can be depended upon to yield series of 
plants, animals, fossils, rocks and minerals. If such 
sources of material are not neglected, purchasing—chiefly 
out of town—becomes a legitimate way to strengthen the 
collections at their weakest points. , 

Out of the many opportunities which every museum has 
of adding to its collections, choices should be made with 
greatest care. On occasions worthless material may be 
accepted and later thrown away rather than to give offense 
by refusing it. At other times persuasion may be used 
to hold a friend without accepting material that is not 
wanted. To keep some objects out is more important 
at times than to get others in. Interest and sentiment 
should not be blighted by ‘‘cast iron’’ methods, but the 
future of a museum should be safeguarded at all times. 

Three duties devolve upon the director: first, to induce 
gifts by establishing confidence and good will, second, to 
refuse courageously but tactfully what would become a 
burden, and third, to avoid awkward conditions attached 
to gifts that are accepted. 


a ae en a Pa a ee 


ACCESSION POLICIES 123 


CONDITIONS OF GIFT 


Donors commonly seek to impose conditions upon mus- 
eums either for the purpose of perpetuating their own 
names or out of sheer perversity. This desire is sometimes 


the result of a patronizing attitude of which a donor may 


be disabused if reminded that a museum performs a pub- 
lic service when it accepts objects and provides for their 
safety and best use. Explanation of issues involved is 
convincing to any reasonable person; the tendered gifts of 
others must often be declined. 

In order to anticipate circumstances which are sure to 
arise, the trustees should lay down definite accession pol- 
icies which the director may cite as authority. Staunch 
policies in such matters are as necessary as sound organ- 
ization or regular income. 

Policy should forbid the acceptance of a collection under 
condition that it be Ke intact. An assemblage of miscel- 
Tanéous material is a “‘ white elephant”’ unless it can be as- 
similated into the existing collection. An accession made 
up of closely related objects is less troublesome to admin- 
ister separately, but only the most homogeneous material 
such as an important systematic collection of a special- 
ist is worth accepting to be kept intact. In any event, 
the general policy should be unequivocal, and excep- 
tions—if any—made only by special action of the trus- 
tees. 

Policy should forbid the acceptance of emaicrias under 
condition that it be ‘exhibited permanently. ‘The exhibits 


A er gc 


erences enn 
represent selections from the collections of a museum. 


Not all objects are suitable for exhibition and, of those 
that are, not all are appropriate for permanent display. 
Desire for a memorial is the usual motive for condition- 
ing that a gift be placed on exhibition, and usually it 
prompts the further request, in the case of a large gift, 


124 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


that it be shown in a room named officially after the donor. 
This is undesirable from the standpoint of the museum, 
since it tends to feature personalities to the detriment of 
other purposes. The usual and proper way of giving 
credit is to affix the donor’s name to the label of each 
presented object as a matter of recognition and of record. 
If material so labeled is dispersed, the name goes with 
each piece. 

Policy should forbid acceptance of a gift under condt- 
tion that the museum keep it permanently. It should be 
the right of a museum to make the best use of its collec- 
tions. If an object becomes undesirable it should be 
eliminated, since to keep it would interfere with the care 
and use of more important things. A museum should be 
free to part with any of its possessions by gift, sale or 
exchange, in order to bring about readjustments under 
changing conditions or to remedy overcrowding. If this 
right is reserved, material may be accepted without fear 
that the future will give occasion for regret. 

If an object received by gift is sold, the funds derived 
from the sale should be used to acquire other material 
to be credited to the original donor, and the same practice 
in the matter of credit should be followed in the case of 
an exchange. Objects acquired by purchase or collected 
in the field may be sold without restriction. Every sale 
should be specifically authorized by action of the trustees. 

The question of selling works of art from loan exhibits, 
which is quite another matter, is taken up in the chapter 
on art collections and exhibits—page 165. 


CONDITIONS OF LOAN 


Since loans are accepted for immediate purposes—usu- 
ally either exhibition or study—any arrangements which 
suit convenience are quite proper. The danger of mort- 


ACCESSION POLICIES 125 


gaging the future does not exist with loans as with gifts, 
since borrowed objects may be returned at any time. 
But even so, an undesirable loan should not be accepted 
to accommodate the owner, whoever he may be, and loans 
for storage should be considered only under the most un- 
usual circumstances—if at all. 

Some museums do not accept material on loan for a 
period shorter than a year, but any such general rule 
is likely to be disadvantageous. If a loan is to be put 
on exhibition at considerable expenditure of time or if 
withdrawal of it on short notice would cause inconven- 
ience, then a long term should be required. Ordinarily, 
however, objects may be borrowed for days, weeks or 
months as circumstances dictate. Short-term loans yield 
many temporary exhibitions. 


WRITTEN AGREEMENTS 


It is a safe precaution against misunderstanding to 
have a written agreement covering each important gift 
and each loan. A possible phrasing for an agreement of 
gift is the following: 


CONTRACT OF GIFT 


I hereby give and donate without limiting 
(SR MARS Te ESE ie aaa ewer 
the following articles to be the absolute property 
of the Museum. 


The same ground is sometimes thought to be covered 
by a letter of acceptance, but this may not be acknow- 
ledged and therefore is of no assured value. 

Loan agreements usually follow the lines of the sub- 
joined example. 


126 


MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


CONTRACT OF DEPOSIT 


I hereby deposit in the custody of 
the following articles: 


It is understood that the conditions of this. 
deposit are as follows: 

The articles remain the property of the depos- 
itor and are subject to withdrawal by him at any 
time, except as hereinafter provided. 

These articles will be delivered upon the sur- 
render of this receipt or a written order of the 
lender or his duly authorized agent or legal rep- 
resentative. In case of the death of the lender, 
the legal representative of the deceased is re- 
quested to notify the Director of the Museum 
forthwith giving full name and address in writing. 

The Museum will give to these articles while in 
its custody the same care they would receive if 
they were its property, but it assumes no respon- 
sibility in case of loss or damage by theft, fire or 
otherwise. | 

Should the Museum at any time desire to ter- 
minate its obligations with reference to these ar- 
ticles or any of them, the owner may be notified 
that they must be withdrawn within thirty days, 
and if not so withdrawn they shall then become 
the absolute property of the Museum. 

Permission to copy or photograph works of 
art which are lent to the Museum is granted only 
after consent has been obtained from the owners. 

(Signed) 
(Address) 


Received 


By 


XXIII 
THE STUDY COLLECTIONS 


A MUSEUM should not have all of its material on exhibi- 
tion, and furthermore it should not have all the excess 
packed away in storage. If collections are divided be- 
tween exhibition cases and the cellar, the cases are sure 
to become jammed with things that are too important 
to be kept in packing boxes, and the cellar is equally cer- 
tain to acquire an accumulation that, to all intents and 
purposes, is lost forever. In a well managed museum a 
greater part of the material is kept available for use. The 
objects are classified and put away compactly in trays and 
on shelves where they are safe from damage, and the ar- 
rangement of them is such that any can be produced 
on short notice for inspection and perhaps for exhibition 
or other use. The collections which a museum disposes in 
this fashion may be used by students and therefore they 
are called study collections. ‘These collections constitute 
a reservoir from which material is drawn for the exhibits; 
they contain materials of research; they are the source of 
some of the objects used for educational work. Many 
things selected for exhibition may be shown only tempo- 
rarily and then returned to their places in the study 
collections. , 

A director may be heard to complain that his rooms 
are overcrowded with exhibition cases, each full to over- 
flowing, and that he has no room for a study collection. 
This is to be expected where everything is kept in cases. 
If a person who has this difficulty would begin by organ- 
izing everything into study collections, he would find it 
occupying only a small part of the space required previ- 

127 


128 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ously. The liberated floor area would then be adequate 
to make a good exhibit of selected objects. 


DEPARTMENTS OF THE COLLECTIONS 


The branches of the field which a museum covers nat- 
urally determine the main divisions of the study collec- 
tion, each division of which may be in charge of a depart- 
ment. Ina general museum devoted to history, art and 
science, three departments for these three subjects are 
usually the minimum requirement. If work is well de- 
veloped, subdivisions may be required along lines which 
would constitute main divisions in a museum of more re- 
stricted field. 

Some departments may not become active until others 
are well developed, but even in that event it may be de- 
sired to form the nucleus of a collection for the projected 
departments. If this is done, the material making up 
each nucleus may be recorded and perhaps placed in stor- 
age; it should not be mixed with the collections of active 
departments. 

There are objects which might be assigned to either of 
two or three departments depending upon the interpre- 
tation placed upon them. For example, a piece of prim- 
itive pottery which is chiefly of historical or archeological 
interest may also be a work of art. A passenger pigeon 
which belongs in the collection of birds may also be of — 
historical importance. Numberless such examples might 
be cited. However, there should not be great difficulty 
in determining what assignment to give any object for 
purposes of recording it and placing it in the collection. 
The question is always one of relative values. It would 
not be appropriate for instance to treat local birds as 
historical material because they exemplify the vanishing 
fauna which our descendants will want to know about 
in order to visualize our present-day lives. The extinc- 


as ea cin e © 


THE STUDY COLLECTIONS 129 


tion of species is primarily biological and not historical, 
and yet some museums of history collect fossils without 
realizing that these are objects of science requiring scien- 
tific interpretation to be significant. Similarly, some art 
museums enter the field of history by collecting ethnolog- 
ical material regardless of its artistic merit. 

The fact that an object is assigned to the study collec- 
tion of one department does not prevent its use by an- 
other department for exhibition or other purposes. An 
exhibit of pottery, for example, might draw upon his- 
tory for various types of primitive pottery, upon art for 
pieces of good design and upon science for samples of 
materials. Sometimes it is found desirable to transfer 
material from one department to another, as conditions 
change. This can be accomplished without difficulty if 
records are kept as recommended in a subsequent chapter 


—Ppage 173. 
SCOPE OF COLLECTIONS 


Every small museum has a field that absorbs, or might 
absorb, the full attention of a large museum, and further, 
every small general museum attempts to cover ground to 
which in large cities three or more large museums are 
devoted. It would seem, therefore, that no growing mus- 
eum could long remain small. But a small community 
cannot support a large museum, and, in consequence, to 
be successful the small museum must find a way to limit 
its physical growth without retarding its development in 
usefulness. 

So far as study collections are concerned, control of 
bulk is dependent upon limitation of scope, or compre- 
hensiveness. Definite policy in this respect is imperative. 
In general, the study collection in each field should be 
developed along the lines of an appropriate specialty. 


130 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Specifically, this problem is considered in three subse- 
quent chapters devoted in turn to the study collections 
and exhibits of history, art and science. There is no 
museum so circumscribed in field that it lacks occasion 
to form a study collection. 


LeeeEeee Te 


XXIV 
THE EXHIBITS 


_ ACCORDING to the best museum practice, exhibits have 
a direct relation to study collections in that they are made 
up of objects selected from the collections and, for the 
most part, capable of being returned at will. Some mus- 
eums actually reserve the places in the storage racks from 
which things are taken for the installations, so that 
exhibits can be made and unmade with entire freedom. 
Of course, such flexibility is not attainable in the case of 
objects which, in being prepared for exhibition, are ren- 
dered unsuitable for return to the study series, or of 
models and groups which may be useless except as ex- 
hibits, or of massive pieces which must be kept on exhibi- 
tion if they are to be kept at all. Such things give a 
certain detachment to exhibits, but in general, material 
on display is conceived to be an integral part of study col- 
lections, chosen for some definite reason and placed on 
view for a longer or shorter period. 

Observance of this principle tends to give high charac- 
ter to exhibits, since it emphasizes the importance of 
selection of material for them, and incidentally it helps 
to overcome the annoyance which some donors feel if 
their gifts are not put on exhibition. Any such fancied 
grievance is an aftermath of the once common practice of 
exhibiting everything. It is based upon a belief that 
only rejected objects are put out of sight—an idea which 
any museum should be able to disprove. 

A further advantage of recognizing in practice the rela- 
tion which should exist between study collections and 
exhibits, is the effect of drawing attention to the impor- 

131 


132 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


tance of collections. This tends to bring about develop- 
ment of facilities for research and educational work. 


SHOWING NEW ACQUISITIONS 


Partly as an unction to donors and partly as a real 
offering to the public, important new acquisitions may 
be placed on display temporarily in a special case for 
Recent Gifts. After this initial showing some objects need 
never be exhibited again. 

Ingenuity will suggest methods of dealing with new 
collections that are too bulky to be installed in the recent- 
gifts case. They may be placed on temporary exhibition 
elsewhere in the museum or arranged for inspection in 
the study collections, with only a few objects installed in 
the case and so labeled as to indicate the extent of the 
material and where it may be seen. 


PURPOSES OF EXHIBITS 


Museum exhibits which have a dignified purpose may 
—in fact, should—also be interesting and attractive. 
There is no basis for the notion that the public must 
be shown the startling or the grotesque to attract its 
attention. Museums are not concerned except perhaps 
incidentally with the unusual or the spectacular. 

Objects of history stimulate the imagination and, if 
intelligibly presented, they enable one to reconstruct the 
past. Specimens of science appeal to the intellect and, 
if plainly interpreted, they impart understanding of the 
world of nature. Works of art address themselves to the 
sense of beauty and, if tastefully shown, they give pleas- 
ure. To achieve one of these results is the usual purpose 
of an exhibit; to achieve more than one of them is some- 
times the aim, as remains to be seen. 


THE EXHIBITS 133 


The success of an exhibit depends largely upon the skill 
employed in its installation. To install an object prop- 
erly may be only to show it pleasingly, or it may be to 
show it pleasingly and also to explain it. This depends 
upon the character of the object and the purpose for which 
it is displayed. Since works of art are created to make 
their own appeal, they require favorable setting rather 
than labeling or other fact-stating devices to induce 
appreciation of them, but if the desire is to bring out 
facts about the character or history of art objects, exposi- 
tory methods are in order. On the other hand, objects 
of history and science usually require explanation. Ex- 
position of an exhibit must not be confused with mere 
identification of the objects which compose it. A strik- 
ing demonstration of the difference between these two 
possibilities is offered by comparison of the explanatory 
remarks of an untrained museum guide with those of a 
skilled instructor. The guide only tells what objects are 
and he leaves his hearers with confused memories. The 
instructor points out objects to assist him in conveying 
thoughts and he leaves his hearers with ideas. 

These subjects are discussed further in the chapters on 
installation of exhibits and labeling—pages 209 and 223. 


PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY EXHIBITS 


Some exhibits may be permanent by reason of their 
immobility, and others because of their fundamental 
character or great importance. Such fixed exhibits may 
be supplemented by temporary ones. 

Permanent exhibits serve as the background for regu- 
lar educational work and necessarily therefore they 
should be general in character and should touch upon all 
the main branches of a museum’s field—limitations of 
space being reflected by sketchiness of treatment. Tem- 


134 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


porary exhibits tend to be more intensive; usually they 
cover a limited subject rather fully. 

Changing exhibits give freshness and this is especially 
important to a small museum which visitors may feel 
they have ‘‘seen”’ in one visit. Also they carry emphasis 
by reason of the interest which attaches to any special 
feature, and the understanding which comes of concen- 
tration upon a few things at atime. If provision is made 
for such exhibits, either by reserving space or by arrang- 
ing so that room may be made available, there should be 
no great difficulty in providing for frequent temporary 
installations. Elaborate exhibits may be kept on view 
for months; simple or especially timely ones are shown 
ordinarily for a few weeks only. The material for such 
exhibits may be drawn from the study collections or bor- 
rowed. Occasionally for short periods important objects 
may be attracted from homes or even stores, and, in the 
field of art, traveling exhibits supply many needs. 

There is ample opportunity for museums to cooperate 
in the preparation of temporary exhibits. If several 
institutions with about the same needs would each agree 
to prepare one exhibit a year and to exchange among 
themselves, all of them might have ever-changing installa- 
tions in return for slight expenditure of time and money. 
This is the only way in which a museum can be sure of 
an uninterrupted sequence of exhibits, and, if it is carried 
out in the light of an agreement upon specifications, it 
solves difficulties attendant upon installing a succession of 
exhibits of unlike size and type. 


ARRANGEMENT OF EXHIBITS 


Usually exhibits are separated into the same main divi- 
sions as study collections. Within any section, there are 
two bases upon which they may be arranged: that of class- 


THE EXHIBITS 135 


ification by kind, and that of association by use. For 
example, in an American history section, household im- 
plements may be classified and all the lamps put together 
to show the development of lighting, or implements may 
be associated according to the time and place of their 
use so that the paraphernalia of a colonial kitchen is 
brought together. So also in an art exhibit, all paintings 
may be shown together, or they may be placed with other 
_kinds of objects grouped by period. In a science installa- 
tion, animals may be classed in families or arranged so 
that different modes of life are illustrated. ! 

Both types of arrangement are so necessary to presen- 
tation of any subject that they are usually employed side 
by side, in permanent as well as in temporary exhibits. 
The method of arranging by association leads directly to 
the two special types of displays known as the period room 
and the group. Succeeding chapters deal specifically with 
these various subjects. 


EXTRA-MURAL EXHIBITS 


Branch exhibits are arranged by many museums. Pub- 
lic buildings, schools, store windows and other favorable 
locations may be used to make installations which are 
of value in themselves and also are useful to the museum, 
since they act as leaders to its exhibition rooms. Such 
extensions of influence are characteristic of progressive 
museums. 


XXV 
OUTDOOR EXHIBITS 


Museums have always placed emphasis upon collecting — 
—the process of bringing within four walls examples of 
what is to be found throughout the length and breadth of 
the world. Recently, however, much attention has been 
given to an idea which is the very converse of the one that 
underlies collecting. That is the notion that things in 
their natural outdoor settings are exhibits which can be 
used for museum purposes without being “‘collected.”’ 

Outdoor museums are not new, to be sure. There have 
long been such as the famous one at Skansen, but for the 
most part these exhibits have been installed outdoors 
specifically for museum purposes, rather than utilized 
wherever chance has provided them. ‘The new idea is 
that outdoor exhibits need not be created—that they 
exist and need only to be utilized. On the basis of this 
principle every museum may to some degree become an 
outdoor museum by interpreting in the out-of-doors the 
works of nature and the products of man’s handiwork. 
This function will probably never so eclipse the indoor 
exhibition work of museums as to produce institutions of 
entirely new type, but undoubtedly as a supplement to 
indoor exhibition, extra-mural activity will play an in- 
creasingly important part. 

In the field of science there is a special wealth of mate- 
rial. Local, county and state parks and the whole coun- 
tryside offer successions of exhibits. Geologic features of 
the landscape, rocks, birds, insects and plants may be 
seen on every hand, but they are not recognized or under- 
stood by most people. It remains for museums to inter- 

136 


PLATE 8 


BRITTON COTTAGE—A I7TH CENTURY HOME MAINTAINED BY THE STATEN 
ISLAND INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 


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OUTDOOR EXHIBITS 137 


pret them to the layman. The means by which this is 
to be accomplished are not fully defined, but experiments 
in progress range from tree-labeling in cities to the estab- 
lishment of small frazlside museums in national parks— 
each to expound some natural feature at the spot where 
nature has placed it on exhibition. 

An experiment which is especially suggestive for small 
museums is that described in Lutz’s Nature trails. It 
consists in maintaining a woodland trail along which 
trees, shrubs and herbs, rocks and other natural objects 
are labeled with tags. The upkeep of such a trail is an 
appropriate project for a group of boy scouts, and experi- 
ence has shown that appeal in the labels for care forestalls 
practically all vandalism. ‘Training the public to take 
care of the out-of-doors is considered to be one of the 
most important features of the undertaking. Develop- 
ment of this plan at summer camps, in connection with 
small temporary collections, is another possibility which 
has had rewarding attention under museum leadership at 
Bear Mountain, New York, in the Palisades Interstate 
Park. 

In the field of history also, museums have ample oppor- 
tunities out-of-doors. Although much has already been 
done in this direction by marking sites, there seems to 
be need of a new technique—such as can come only from 
concerted efforts to present the full story of local history 
in terms of outdoor exhibits. 

Many old buildings of vast interest house small mu- 
seums. ‘This is unfortunate wherever the occupancy re- 
sults in permanent conversion of a historic place into a 
series of exhibition rooms for display of unrelated mate- 
rial. An old and historic house invites installation of 
household objects of the period in realistic arrangement. 
Such a place is in spirit a single exhibit, not the home of a 
museum. Perhaps some of the old houses which are now 


138 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


filled with exhibition cases may come to be regarded as 
temporary quarters, for conversion at some future time 
into branch exhibits of history—extra-mural installations, 
- half indoors and half out. 


mete 


stumbling block which museums have gotten over with 
difficulty by exhibiting small models and photographs, 
but if the out-of-doors is to be a museum precinct, the 
originals automatically become museum pieces. There is 
- needed only a technique of relating them to indoor ex- 
_ hibits and of basing educational work upon them. Some 
_ of the finest sculptures too are in public places and need 
_ only the efforts of museums to draw public appreciation. 
_ The problem here is comparable in a way to that of treat- 
ing geology, which hitherto has been represented in mu- 
| seums by models, photographs and rock-fragments. 

In foregoing paragraphs, suggestions as to method have 
necessarily been meager; this branch of work is as new 
as itis vital. Efforts will doubtless first be made to inter- 
pret outdoor exhibits that are near at hand to each mu- 
seum, but already it is being suggested that some of the 
opportunities lie far afield. Members of every community 
are going and coming by train and automobile, and 
therefore it is well within the province of any museum to 
interest itself in teaching through the agency of museum- 
inspired road maps and railroad leaflets which interpret 
what one sees along the way. Railroad station exhibits 
to quicken interest in such leaflets and to prepare the 
mind for an intelligent journey have also been pro- 
posed. | 

When the full gamut of possibilities shall have been vis- 
ioned and some of them put into practice, museums may 
become the leaders in a new conservation movement that 
will carry an appeal to every citizen. Then the museum 


OUTDOOR EXHIBITS 139 


will really take the world to itself and will be ‘‘the refuge, 
not the home, of the objects . . . it shelters.’’ 


REFERENCES— 


Bumpus, HERMON C. Relations of museums to the out-of- 
doors. Publications Amer. Ass’n. Museums, N. S. No. 1, 
1926, 7-15. 

GILMAN, BENJAMIN IvEs. Museums of art and the conserva- 
tion of monuments. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1909, 
3. 87-02. 

Lutz, FRANK E. Nature trails. An experiment in outdoor 
education. American Museum of Natural History. Misc. 
Pub. No. 21, 1926, 36 pp. 


XXVI 
THE LENDING COLLECTION 


SOME museums do not allow objects to go out on loan 
under any circumstances, because they feel the weight of 
responsibility for things in their keeping and are not pre- 
pared to take any risk of damage or loss. In consequence 
they are prevented from rendering a useful service. The 
seeming impasse is created by failure to differentiate 
between two kinds of material that every museum pos- 
sesses. There are some objects which are important in 
themselves because of their associations, their rarity or 
their intrinsic beauty or worth. An object that has 
played a unique part in history, a scientific type-specimen 
or an original and fine painting are examples. Such 
things are not replaceable and should of course receive 
care that will assure their safety. On the other hand, 
there are other things which are not individually impor- 
tant or unique, but which, as examples, may be used for 
teaching purposes. Of this sort are many archzological, 
ethnological and historical objects, rocks and minerals, 
plants and small animals, inexpensive objects of art, 
such as certain prints, ceramics and fragments of textiles, 
as well as reproductions of art works of all kinds. Such 
objects may be used to form a lending collection. 

The chief occasion for existence of the lending collec- 
tion is school-service, and therefore the collection should 
be developed with special reference to the school curric- 
ulum. The textbooks in use should be read, teachers and 
principals consulted, and every effort made to provide 
material that can be used. The kinds of objects that are 
most in demand may be learned by consulting the cata- 

140 


THE LENDING COLLECTION 141 


logs indicated in the appended list of references—one of 
a large, one of a medium-sized, and one of a small museum 
respectively. 

The three usual classes of material are objects, pictures 
and lantern slides. 


OBJECTS 


The most fruitful source of objects for a lending collec- 
tion is the average study collection. Most long series of 
study material may be cut down without doing violence 
to their usefulness, and to the fragmentary assemblage 
thus developed by appropriation of surplus may be 
added some material secured especially for lending. A 
little effort put into collecting local rocks, minerals, plants 
and animals should yield a fairly representative collec- 
tion. Announcement of needs in the press may be 
counted upon to draw history material of the sort needed 
for school use. Art materials, such as inexpensive or . 
fragmentary original objects, and many reproductions are 
obtainable by gift or purchase. 

To illustrate certain lessons, sets of objects may be 
assembled, but large sets are not desirable because they 
divide the attention of a class too greatly. A dozen or 
fifteen objects are usually enough. Each set should have 
its own brief descriptive matter, and objects may be sup- 
plemented by pictures, lantern slides and even books for 
supplementary reading. 

Only such objects as require protection should be put 
under glass or in containers of any sort. The usefulness 
of the lending collection depends upon opportunity to 
handle objects quite as much as to see them. However, 
some things must be guarded against rough usage, and 
among them are mounted birds. The severe damage 
which they commonly sustain has led to discussion of the 


142 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


wisdom of including birds in the lending series. How- 
ever, a device that has recently been described in print, 
seems to solve the problem. It requires the use of bird 
skins instead of fully mounted birds—each skin being 
provided with a handle in the form of a stick that is 
fastened into the skull, passes back through the skin and 
sticks out well beyond the tail. The feet of the bird are 
tied firmly to the stick near its middle. This device, of 
which a description was published by Joseph Grinnell,* 
has been improved by encasing the object in a celluloid 
container as explained in an article by William S. Wright. * 

For a small or flat object that requires protection, an 
improvised butterfly mount may be made out of a card- 
board box by removing a rectangular piece from its lid, 
leaving only a narrow margin. A glass top is fitted inside 
the frame-like cover and the box is filled with cotton to 
hold the object in place against the glass. 


PICTURES AND SLIDES 


In order to fill gaps and to extend the scope of the lend- 
ing collection, it is customary to include pictures. Use- 
ful pictures covering a wide range of subjects may be 
obtained from magazines, books, albums, posters and 
other sources at little or no cost. They may be mounted 
on cards of uniform size—conveniently 13 by 17% inches 
—in order to facilitate filing and handling. 

There need be no confusion between the photographs 
and prints which form part of the art study collection, on 
the one hand, and the pictures in the lending collection, 
on the other. The former are selected reproductions of 
masterpieces together with etchings, lithographs and other 
original prints. The latter are pictures of all kinds— 


t The Condor, May 1924, 26: 107-108. 
2 Publications Amer. Ass’n. Museums, N. S. No. 3, 1927, 14-16. 


Courtesy of Erie Public Museum. 


A.—LENDING SET FOR CLASSROOM USE ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY OF 
PAPER. 


Courtesy of The Newark Museum. | 
B.—FILE OF PICTURES IN A LENDING COLLECTION. 


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THE LENDING COLLECTION 143 


many of them chosen for their subjects without regard to 
any artistic value which they may possess. — 

Lantern slides, which form the third class of lending 
material, are quite expensive but they are so useful to the 
schools that a small collection may well be formed. Every 
slide should have its brief descriptive label, but this 
rarely gives enough data for all purposes. In response 
to the need for more information, as well as to stimulate 
use of the slides, it is customary to prepare descriptive 
lectures relating to sets of about fifty slides. These so- 
called canned lectures may be typewritten or mimeo- 
graphed for circulation, and should be protected by card- 
board binders. 

Sometimes it is maintained that sets of slides are unde- 
sirable because they relieve teachers of the necessity of 
doing their own thinking. This is a specious argument. 
Teachers with initiative never fail to be original; others 
cannot be induced to think for themselves and will not 
use museum material at all if it lays a tax upon their 
powers. However, sets need not always be kept intact 
unless the demand for them is considerable—in which 
event duplicate slides may be made for the purpose so 
that one copy of each slide may be available for lending 
individually. To facilitate checking up the number and 
arrangement of slides in a set, a diagonal line may be 
drawn across the top of the set from corner to corner. 
This line crosses each slide-top at a different distance 
from the edge, and a missing or misplaced slide may be 
detected at once by a break in the line. Paint or colored 
pencil may be used to make the line, but the mark on 
each slide may be made more permanent by pasting 
a narrow strip of colored paper over it. 

Every museum may find subjects for some slides in its 
own collections and exhibits. ‘The resources of dealers 
may be drawn upon also, if means permit. Many of the 


144 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


larger museums are willing to make slides from their own 
negatives at cost. 

Motion picture films are lent by some institutions. One 
museum lends projection lanterns as well as slides, so 
that anyone may conduct a travelogue in his home. 
Another museum lends paintings. However, such serv- 
ices as these make rather severe demands upon the treas- 
ury, and most small museums cannot offer them. 


\ 


FILING AND CLASSIFICATION 


Objects, pictures and lantern slides should be kept 
in independent series, but the basis of arrangement should 
be the same for each. A subject classification which 
recognizes subjects included in the school curriculum is 
advantageous for teachers, and it is as good as any other 
for the general user. The following main headings are 
taken from the catalog of the Newark Museum. 


Industrial processes—divided by product or pro- 
cess: asbestos, bookbinding, etc. 
Economic products—divided by product: bam- 
boo, barley, etc. 
Minerals—divided by name: agate, alabaster, 
etc. 
Physical geography—divided by subject of model 
or picture. 
Nature study: 
Insects 
Life histories—divided by popular name of 
insect. 
Butterflies 
Moths 
Marine life, amphibians, reptiles, crustaceans— 
Birds 
Birds’ nests 


THE LENDING COLLECTION 145 


Mammals 
Woods 
Textiles—divided by material: cotton, flax; and 
process; Jacquard loom, spinning-wheel, etc. 
Dolls in costume—divided geographically. 
Life and customs—divided geographically under 
subheads: general, races, weapons, toys, etc. 


The file of mounted pictures may be made to serve as 
the nucleus of an index to objects in the lending collec- 
tion by inserting at proper points cards of the same size 
as the picture-mounts and bearing references to objects 
in the collection. For convenience, photographs or out- 
line sketches of the more important objects may be affixed 
to the cards. If this plan is carried out, the user has only 
to leaf over the cards in order to determine the resources 
of the lending collections in either pictures or objects. 

A typewritten, mimeographed or printed catalog of 
the lending collection adds greatly to its use. Items 
should be arranged in the same manner as the contents of 
the collection and numbers may be assigned to facilitate 
ordering. A decimal notation is best for this purpose 
since it admits of indefinite expansion. 


MANAGEMENT 


The routine of lending material and making records of 
its departure and return is very comparable to the mechan- 
ical part of library work. For this reason it may be 
advantageous for the lending collection to be adminis- 
tered by the librarian of a museum. 

School teachers usually form a majority of those who 
use the lending collection. Whether or not others should 
be required to join the museum in order to have the bor- 
rowers’ privilege, is a matter of opinion, but in any event 


146 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


credentials should be required. Those who borrow are 
serious-minded people engaged in all sorts of undertak- 
ings. One is designing a costume; another is preparing a 
paper for a meeting; a third is getting up a pageant. 
They are all potential museum members. 

Lending material needs to be protected for transporta- 
tion. Wooden carrying cases of appropriate uniform sizes 
with hinged lids and metal handles can be made by boys 
in public school manual training classes, and some mu- 
seums have been able to get numbers of boxes made in 
this way by paying only the cost of materials. 


REFERENCES— 


The following catalogs describe three lending collections of 
different size: 


Catalogue. Educational Museum of the St. Louis Public 
Schools, 175 pp. 

Educational material for teachers. Newark Museum Asso- 
ciation, 1923, 20 pp. 

Lending Collections. New Jersey State Museum, 1922-1923, 
19 pp. 


see also: 

Dana, J. C., and GARDNER, BLANCHE. Aids in high-school 
teaching: pictures and objects. Vol. 2, pt. 19 of: Modern 
American library economy as illustrated by the Newark, 
N. J., Free Public Library. Woodstock, Vermont, The 
Elm Tree Press, 1916, 68 pp. 


ar 
SE a ae ee 


XXVII 
HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 


IN applying to the materials of history the principles 
which should govern the development of study collections 
and exhibits, questions of geographic range and time range 
must be taken into account. Each museum must decide 
how much of the world it will consider and how far it will 
delve into the past. In other words it must determine 
the extent to which local history and recent years are to 
overshadow world background and remote ages. In doing 
so it should be guided by three facts. First, physical and 
financial limitations circumscribe the possibilities. Sec- 
ond, a study collection is useful to scholars only if it 
develops a specialty. Third, exhibits are most useful for 
educational work if they are general in scope. 

History deals with the whole of man’s career—not just 
with events in war and politics. This interpretation of 
the field is not peculiar to museums; it expresses a view 
that is quite generally accepted. ‘‘Today, historians 
conceive of history as the evolution of the human race 
during 250,000 years—as everything that man has done, 
said, felt and been. It includes the unrecorded as well as 
the recorded life of man, and denies the existence of a pre- 
historic period. In space it embraces the whole earth.’’* 

In consequence of this understanding of their field, 
museums of history are concerned with archeology and 
ethnology. The materials of these subjects may be ar- 
ranged ‘‘to show the every-day life and culture of the 
people—their implements of hunting and warfare, their 


«Flick. See reference on page 160. 
147 


148 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


means of shelter, their articles of clothing and utensils for 
cooking, and their objects connected with cult or wor- 
ship; their skill as craftsmen, whether in flint and stone, 
in pottery, in weaving, or in copper and other metals; 
their advancement in agriculture, transportation, trade 
or architecture; their use of symbolism and ornament 
and their sense of beauty. By these means attention is 
turned from the masses of individual detached objects 
to the people who made and used them. ‘Thus in the 
Americas we become less interested in arrowheads and 
more in Indians, moundbuilders, cliff dwellers, eskimos, 
Aztecs, Mayas and Incas.’’? 

The museum of history at its best, therefore, is what 
might be called a museum of culture-history, or of culture. 
‘‘Some educator has said that the most important dis- 
covery of modern times is the discovery of man, not prim- 
itive man, but man—man’s discovery of himself. . 
This ‘discovery of man’ has changed the modern museum 
from a repository of dead material into a living and active 
force for the interpretation of man, and the museum which 
interprets man to himself is the culture museum.”’? 

In covering this wide field, museums are prone to neglect 
the contemporary element. History did not end fifty 
years ago, yet current history seldom finds a place in a 
museum, for the reason, perhaps, that the wealth of pres- 
ent day material is overwhelming. This is unfortunate; 
it is the duty of a museum to give attention to the manner 
of American life today. It is especially important to 
watch for signs of changing times. Just recently the 
saloon departed and now the erstwhile barbershop and 
drugstore are preparing to leave our midst forever. 


* Putnam, E. K., Museums passive and active. See references on page - 


245. . 
2 Bragg, Laura M. Culture museums and the use of culture material. 


See reference on page 160. 


HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 149 


Such facts should be noted and material with data should 
be added to museum collections while there is still time. 

Industry is a part of contemporary culture, which, 
though sometimes overlooked, is intimately related to the 
various primitive occupations commonly represented in 
museums of history. The spinning wheel is grandfather 
to the spinning frame, the candle to the incandescent 
lamp. However, if treated from the standpoint of tech- 
nical principles and processes, rather than of human 
behavior, industry is a special subject that is hardly 
within the field of a small museum—unless it be a special 
museum of industry. 


“RELICS” 


Many museums suffer as a result of the common belief 
that to be of historic interest and value an object must 
have been used by or otherwise associated with a celeb- 
rity or have played a part in some notable event. This 
is amisapprehension. A towel on which George Washing- 
ton dried his hands is probably a good towel of its time. 
Its chief historic value arises from its character, and not 
from the fact that it was used by the first President. As 
a towel it is an object of history, but as a souvenir of 
Washington it is a so-called ‘‘relic.”’ 

Relics are fetishes, and so blind is the worship of them 
that the very word relic has fallen into disrepute among 
museum workers. Most of such objects are set up as 
targets for stupid staring and idle sentimentality. How- 
ever, it must be added that some relics are essentially 
biographical material, and it would be wrong to under- 
estimate their importance. Washington’s coat expresses 
the man. Its value is not just that of chance association. 
The coat is a record; it is a muniment of history. 

Any museum may gain by eliminating the more insig- 

~ 


150 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


nificant relics, calling the rest objects and keeping in mind 
that history is represented largely by humble objects of 
daily use. : | 


HISTORY STUDY COLLECTION 


Whatever field is covered in a study collection must be 
covered with some thoroughness in order that the collec- 
tion be worthy of its name and adequate to its purpose. 
Therefore the history collection of a small museum must 
develop aspecialty. Local history is the logical specialty, 
and it may be represented quite fully in the study collec- 
tion of even a very small museum. 

There are two parts to the history of any locality in 
this country: that of the aborigines and that of the white 
man. ‘These two stories are essentially separate, though 
they run together for a time. The former subject may 
be developed in terms of the succession of cultures that 
have occupied the local area; it includes some of archzol- 
ogy and some of ethnology. The history of the white 
man locally is the history of the community or perhaps of 
the county. Every museum of America might profitably 
preserve records of the same national story since emphasis 
is bound to be different in each community, and striking 
individualities are sure to be brought out in each section 
of the country. ‘Thus it is only natural that at present 
the historical collections in New England emphasize 
colonial history and the Revolutionary period, those in 
the South are devoted largely to the time of the Civil 
War and those in the West have a preponderance of 
pioneer material. 

As will be indicated shortly, the exhibits require a mod- 
icum of world material. Only the study collection is 
referred to in the foregoing comments on local history. 
However, it should be observed that even a local specialty 


HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 151 


may lead into a little of world history. The story of a 
whaling town, for example, would naturally touch upon 
remote parts of the earth with which the town once had 
certain close relations through the voyages of the early 
settlers. 


CLASSIFICATION OF STUDY COLLECTIONS 


There is no accepted system of classification for the 
materials of history; in fact, the problem seems to have 
had very little study. -Therefore, the following outline 
is offered with hesitancy, and only in the hope that it 
may be suggestive. 


HIsTORY OF THE ABORIGINES’ 
The materials of each culture should be kept separate. 


I. General 
I. Systems of reckoning 
2. Records & documents 


II. Material culture 


I. Foods 
Ethno-zoology 
Ethno-botany 
Preparation of foods 
Stimulants & narcotics 
Medicines & surgery 


2. Personal adornment 
Clothing 
Hairdressing 
Painting & feature ornaments 
t This scheme is adapted from an unpublished classification for the 


literature of anthropology which is in preparation by the National Research 
Council, Washington, D. C. 


152. MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSE 


Jewelry , he x 
Tattooing & other permanent d co- 
rations euelea 
3. Shelters & public works | 

Dwellings 

Occupational structures — 

Ceremonial & sovert a buil 
ings oy 

Interior furniture & utensils | 

-Miscellaneous—middens, ‘garde 
earthworks, etc. 


4. Industrial arts 
Sculptural arts Gea 2 
Plastic arts; ee 
Textile arts rig 
Metallurgic arts 
Graphic arts 
Applied decorations 
Stone objects 
Transportation 


III. Social life nee. 
I. Organization & government 
Social unit | 
Totemism 
Kinship sp gti ai 
Property & ae eal 
Descent & inheritance ‘ 
Forms of greeting — | 
Governmental officials & 
Law & order | Sj gases 
2. Warfare and military mks 
Methods of warfare ~ 
Organization a 4 Tae 
Maintenance Gain 


HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 153 


Insignia 
Arms & armor 


3. Individual life 
Birth customs & taboos 
Child life 
Adolescence 
Marriage & position of woman 
Death & mortuary customs 


4. Games & pastimes 
5. Music, poetry & drama 


IV. Religion 
I. Concepts 
2. Creeds & cults 


3. Practices 
Communal 
Individual 
Magic 

4. Religious representatives 


V. Mythology 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


The headings are comparable to those for history 
of the aborigines; the histories of all cultures run in 
the same grooves, although the customary emphasis 
upon personalities and events of recorded history 
tends to obscure this fact. Full provision may be 
made in the following outline for the personal and 
specific by dividing or subdividing any topic chrono- 
logically. The following periods are suggested: 


French period 
English period 


t These divisions are taken from Flick. See references on page 160. 


154 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSE 


Revolutionary period — 
Territorial period 
Period of statehood — 


would be overwhelming. Mate a of bee not 
jects can be represented in museums only by p 


I. Material culture 


Foods 
Clothing & personal sonic 
Buildings & ie works — as a 


Agriculture Gey fag 
Sanitation, medicine & surgery | 
Engineering & fen 
Industry 
Commerce ae 
Il. Money & banking © 


SO MN ANEHWH H 


mal 


II. Social life: 


Orsanieniere 

Government 

Education ey i hes 
Warfare & riley organ 
Individual life jolie 
Recreation ‘ i. 
a poetry & drama is : 


. 


ON ANA SNH 


III. Religion & church 


HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 155 
IV. Biography 


To illustrate use of the foregoing classification, the 
following allocations are instanced: 


Army uniforms II, 5 Warfare—under the per- 
iod of the war in which they 
were used. 

Coins I,11 Money & banking 


Fur trader’s outfit I, 10 Commerce—under division 
: for fur trade and period subdivi- 


sion 

Lincolniana IV Buography 

Pictures Classed by their subjects; por- 
traits under Biography 

Stamps II, 3 Governmenit—under  divi- 


sion for postal service 


The outline is a mere skeleton. As it is developed 
with use, a chart of subdivisions should be made and 
a subject-index kept to show assignment given to 
each class of material that is worked into the collec- 
tion. In this way inconsistencies may be avoided. 
In arranging the collection it may not be found prac- 
ticable to have the various groups of material follow 
each other in the appointed order. 


HISTORY OF OTHER CULTURES 


Most small museums are not in a position to have 
the following subjects represented in study collec- 
tions—the local specialty in itself being almost too 
much to encompass. However, the headings are 
added to complete a scheme which, as remains to be 
indicated, may very possibly be sketched in the 
exhibits. | 


156 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


I. Prehistoric man in the old world? 


1. Forerunners of man 
Pithecanthropus 


2. Eolithic age 
Heidelberg man 
Piltdown man 


3. Paleolithic age 
Neanderthal man 
Grimaldi man 
Cro Magnon man 

4. Neolithic age 
Lake dwellers 

5. Bronze age 

6. Iron age 


II. Ancient civilizations 


I. Egypt 
Tigris-Euphrates 
Other western cultures 
Asiatic cultures 
Aegean culture 

Greece 

Rome 

Europe 


OI ARE WN 


III. Contemporary cultures divided geograph- 
ically 


PERMANENT HISTORY EXHIBITS 


In order to be most useful as the basis of educational 
work, permanent exhibits must be general in character. 
It is not enough to present local history or even American 
history; effort should be made to give a background of 


t These divisions are also taken from the classification of the National 
Research Council. 


HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 157 


world history against which to set temporary exhibits of 
local history. This is a task which may be carried as far 
as space and money will permit, but since small museums 
are limited in both these respects, only high points can be 
touched upon. 

Perforce, the purpose of the exhibits is not to tell the 
whole story but to suggest it. Everything must be pre- 
sented synoptically. This calls for a keen sense of pro- 
portion. The treatment might begin with the rise of man 
as made known by fossils and the oldest artifacts; it might 
indicate the successive stages of civilization; it might 
touch upon European history; finally it should outline 
American history with special reference to the course 
which it has taken locally. In other exhibits might be 
shown a few of the cultures which exist side by side with 
our own in the world today to suggest the other human 
currents that have run for ages. Part of this story is 
the local chapter of aboriginal history with its archezolog- 
ical background. 

In order to carry out this plan it is essential that exhibi- 
tion space be charted and subjects given room on the 
basis of importance. ‘The relative amounts of material 
available for presentation of various subjects should be 
given little weight. Even though certain subjects can- 
not be dealt with at once, either through lack of material 
or uncertainty as to character of exhibits, each subject 
should be allowed its proper space. Then, until the 
needed objects have been acquired and detailed plans for 
the exhibits developed, some spaces may be used for tem- 
porary installations of one kind or another. Any other 
course than to plan for a symmetrical ultimate exhibit 
is bound to induce aimlessness. 

In making these suggestions, it is not overlooked that 
in certain instances museums of history have been much 
criticized for giving prominence to ancient civilizations, 


158 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


and it is not intended to suggest melanges in which spe- 
cial emphasis is lost. The thought is rather that in 
a small museum, the primary objective of permanent 
history exhibits should be to spread a broad background 
against which temporary exhibits of local material may 
be set. 

In the light of the foregoing paragraphs, no comment 
need be offered upon a common practice—that of cover- 
ing walls with portraits. 

There are many books upon which to draw for inform- 
ation in planning exhibits. The following are noted: 


For a survey beginning with the preparation of the 
earth for habitation and ending with the advent of 
civilization: Elliot, G. F. Scott. Prehistoric man and 
his story. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott, 1915, 398 pp. 


For views of ancient civilizations of the Old World, 
from both the historical and the archeological angles: 
Myres, J. L. The dawn of history. New York, 
Henry Holt & Co., 1918, 256 pp. Also: Botsford, 
George Willis. A history of the ancient world. New 
York, The Macmillan Co., 1914, 588 pp. 


For European history: Robinson, James Harvey. 
An introduction to the history of Western Europe. 
Boston, Ginn & Co., 1904, 2 vols. Also Readings in 
European history. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1904, 2 vols. 


For American history: Muzzey, David Saville. An 
American history. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1920, 539 pp. 


For an account of peoples in the world today: Keane, 
A. H. (Revised by A. Hingston Quiggin & A. C. Had- 
don.) Man, past and present. Cambridge, Univers- 


HISTORY COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 159 


ity Press, 1920, 582 pp. A fuller treatment of the 
same subject which is unequalled as a reference work 
is: Haddon, A.C. Theracesof man. New York, The 
Macmillan Co., 1925, 201 pp. 


For a discussion of general principles which are shared 
by history, archeology and ethnology: Wissler, Clark. 
Man and culture. New York, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 


1923, 371 pp. 


For a series of short sketches of cultures which are 
suggestive of exhibit outlines: Goldenweiser, Alexander 
A. Early civilizations. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 


1922. 428 pp. 
TEMPORARY HISTORY EXHIBITS 


Temporary exhibits offer opportunity to treat American 
history in detail, with attention to local phases and with 
emphasis upon personalities and events. ‘These elements 
have been missed, no doubt, in perusal of the foregoing 
pages. ‘To present even half a century of history in this 
way by means of permanent exhibits would be impossible 
except with ample resources of material and space, but 
by a succession of temporary displays the story may be 
taken up here and there at will, and in as much detail 
as opportunity permits. Material which can be secured 
will suggest subjects in succession, and many factors will 
determine the length of time for which each exhibit is 
to be on view. One may be shown for a year before an- 
other takes its place, but so long as each installation is 
conceived to be a chapter of a story which succeeding 
temporary exhibits will carry on as the years advance, 
then the rationale of the museum is preserved. 

It is essential that a definite space be set aside for tem- 
porary exhibits. Changeable case-backs may be used 


160 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


to facilitate the work of preparation, and simplicity of 
installation may be relied upon to solve many problems. 


REFERENCES— 


BELOTE, THEODORE T. The field of the historical museum. 
Museum Work, May-June 1925, 8: 9-16. 

BraGG, LaurA M. Culture museums and the use of culture 
material. Museum Work, Sept.—Oct. 1925, 8: 75-83. 

FLicK, ALEXANDER. What should constitute a museum of 
history. Publications Amer. Ass’n. Museums, N. S. No. 1, 
1926, 25-35. 

PARKER, ARTHUR C. Unhistorical museums. Museum Work, 
Jan.—Feb. 1924, 6: 155-158. 


XXVIII 
ART COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 


THE arts are conceived by some to be architecture, 
sculpture and the graphic arts, namely, painting and 
drawing. ‘To these major arts the term fine is commonly 
applied, as though works of fine art were superior to ceram- 
ics, metal work, carvings, tapestries and lace. In fact 
this view 1s sometimes encountered, but the tendency 
among art museums is to collect objects of beauty, 
whatever material or process they may represent. Also 
museums concern themselves increasingly with the art 
of today, relinquishing by degrees the idea that one must 
wait for time to prove qualities, and that, in consequence, 
’ museums are justified in acquiring only the old that has 
survived. Change of attitude on these two questions is 
partly responsible for the fact that museums now accept 
industrial art objects—things of utility, such as jewelry, 
glassware, china, silverware, furniture, wallpaper, tex- 
tiles and costumes, into the making of which have been 
put efforts to create the beautiful. Many of such objects 
are made by machine, but if they have quality, they are 
ranked as museum pieces. 

Inexpensive reproductions of many of the finest works 
of art are available. There are photographs and half- 
tone prints of examples of architecture and sculpture as 
well as of paintings, drawings and objects of all the minor 
arts. There are many excellent color prints—of paintings 
chiefly. There are plaster casts of sculpture, replicas of 
bronzes and other metal work, and electrotype reproduc- 
tions of Mycenzan, Cretan, Arretine, Roman and Mero- 
vingian antiquities. The best reproductions resemble the 

161 


162 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


originals very closely. In Appendix E is given a list of 
dealers from whom such objects may be obtained. 

The usefulness of reproductions to museums has been 
questioned by those who maintain—and quite rightly — 
that only in the original can one find the full expression 
of the artist, or that photographs ate relatively uninterest- 
ing to the public. However, the issue is not one of repro- 
ductions versus originals: it is more nearly one of reproduc- 
tions versus nothing at all. Many objects which are not 
obtainable in the original may be had in reproduction, 
and many originals which are prohibitive in cost may be 
secured in good reproduction for a nominal price. 

A museum has latitude in determining not only what 
kinds of material to acquire, but also what scope it is to 
have in regard to time and place. In other words, each 
museum must decide whether it will be concerned with 
periods and regions other than its own, and in doing so 
it should take account of at least two facts. First, such 
original art material as most small museums can acquire 
for their study collections is not of much real consequence, 
whereas only a few hundred dollars’ worth of selected re- 
productions may be of great usefulness to students of art 
history. Second, by general agreement the educational 
features of art exhibits should be subordinated to the 
esthetic. These facts point to reproductions as the 
nucleus of the study collection, and to originals, supple- 
mented perhaps by the very best of reproductions, for 
exhibits. If these conclusions are adopted, questions of 
Scope may be judged solely on the basis of available 
means. 


ART STUDY COLLECTION 
For reasons indicated, the art study collection of a small 


museum usually begins as an assemblage of reproductions. 
A series of perhaps five hundred photographs and prints, 


aT il, 


ART COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 163 


representing the arts of all times, constitute a good nucleus 
to which additions can be made from year to year. The 
collection may be classified by the system used at The 
Metropolitan Museum of Art and published under the 
title: Classification for photographs. 

Following the example of large museums, many small 
ones are not content with reproductions and attempt to 
build up reserve collections of paintings and sculpture. 
Results seldom justify the effort. If a museum has scant 
funds with which to make purchases, it must rely upon 


gifts. Most works that can be obtained in this way are 


of mediocre quality, and therefore are undesirable, but in 
order to make some headway, the museum lowers its 
standards and accepts works of little merit or such as are 
primarily of historic interest. Objects of the latter kind, 
such for example as most old portraits, war scenes and 
views of old New York, deserve to be preserved, but they 
should be relegated to a Mstory collection. In view of 
these facts, an exception is made to the rule that a study 
collection should be formed partly to serve as a reservoir 
from which now and again exhibits may be drawn. If 
resources do permit of a serious attempt to develop a 
study collection of originals, the natural point of depart- 
ure is the field of etchings, engravings, lithographs or 
other prints, since hundreds of dollars can do here what 
thousands do in other directions. 


PERMANENT ART EXHIBITS 


Many small museums with slender resources have no 
permanent exhibits, and many others which labor under 
space limitations have very modest exhibits which are 
put on display only between showings of temporary ex- 
hibits. However, to have a permanent installation of 
carefully studied character should be a constant aim. It 
would seem appropriate that efforts in this direction 


164 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


follow first the lines of local art development in order to 
preserve the finest of the local tradition in furniture, china, 
painting or other art expression. 

If a museum reaches a stage of development which 
allows for exhibits of wider scope, a new opportunity is 
presented. This is to give a general view of ‘‘the arts 
throughout the ages,” using representative originals sup- 
plemented by photographs, color prints, casts and other 
reproductions. The history of art is a vast subject, but 
like any other it is capable of being surveyed very briefly ; 
there are few rooms too small for the barest outline. The 
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, has published a chart 
entitled: Synopsis of history with special reference to paint- 
ing, sculpture and the derivative arts, which may be taken as 
a syllabus of exhibits. ; ; 

Perhaps it is supererogation to suggest further possi- 
bilities, but there is an ever present need for expositions 
of the principal processes employed in the arts. A num- 
ber of small instructive installations along these lines 
would do much to create understanding of the other 
exhibits and might forestall inquiries about ‘‘hand- 
painted”’ pictures. 


TEMPORARY ART EXHIBITS 


Museums which have no permanent art exhibits are 
usually able to secure a succession of borrowed ones, but 
even though not needed so vitally, temporary exhibits 
are desirable as elements of freshness which in effect 
increase the art resources that a museum may have at its 
command. ‘There are many opportunities to secure such 
exhibits, since traveling shows—mostly of paintings— 
are circulated by artists and the commercial galleries 
which represent them, by museum and by local and 
national art organizations. The cost to each borrower 
is usually nominal, being a share of the cost of transporta- 


ART COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 165 


tion and insurance. It is not usually practicable to fol- 
low any systematic program in booking exhibits. 

Whatever the sponsorship of a traveling exhibit may 
be, the source of the objects which compose it is the artist, 
and his reason for offering the works for circulation is the 
hope that some of them will be sold. Failing the chance 
to make sales, there would be very few of such exhibits. 
For this reason, and also because a museum is doing a 
real service to its community by influencing citizens to 
buy good pictures for their homes, museums make a 
practice of offering objects for sale from temporary ex- 
hibits. Ordinarily, however, sales efforts are not made, 
the museum merely standing ready to advise prospective 
purchasers and to negotiate with the artist, Some insti- 
tutions take the commission to which they are entitled, 
and some are able to regard their efforts and expenses as 
contributions to the cause. 

Temporary exhibits may also be secured from time to 
time by borrowing objects from local private collections. 


REFERENCES— 


BRECK, JOSEPH. General principles of display in a museum 
of art. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1917, 11: 59-65. 

CARRINGTON, Fitzroy. Small print-collections in museums 
and libraries. Museum Work, Jan. 1920, 2: 118-121. 

HowarTH, EvizAn. The selection of pictures for municipal 
art galleries. Museum Work, Feb. 1921, 3: 154-158. 

Ought museums to sell? Museum Work, March-April 1924, 
6: 179-186 (Symposium). 

PENNELL, ETHEL A. Classification for photographs. In: 
Classification systems used in the library. New York, Met- 
ropolitan Museum of Art, I9II, p. 3-29. 

RosBInson, Davip M. Reproductions of classical art. Art 
and Archeology, April 1917, 5: 221-234. 

WHITMORE, ELIZABETH. The function of reproductions in a 
small museum. Museum Work, Sept.-Oct. 1924, 7: 73-80. 


XXIX 
SCIENCE COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 


THE branches of science which are treated by museums 
are those relating to the earth and the living things 
upon it. These are the geological and biological sciences 
—commonly referred to as natural sciences, or collectively 
as natural history. The materials with which they deal 
are the minerals, rocks, fossils, plants and animals. Man 
is the last member of this series, and therefore physical 
anthropology—which has to do with man, the living crea- 
ture—is part of the field of science. At this point there 
is a close articulation with archeology and ethnology 
which, for the present purposes, are regarded as parts of 
the field of history. Practical reasons for this have 
already been given—page 7. ; | 

There are two quite different interests in science; one 
focuses attention upon the names and classification of 
things and the other upon the significance of natural phe- 
nomena. The former interest has predominated in mu- 
seums of the past, but the latter is now well established as 
an equally important concern. As will be seen, these two 
interests may find expression differently in study collec- 
tions on the one hand and in exhibits on the other. 

As a basis for shaping the growth of both collections 
and exhibits, definite determination of geographic range 
is necessary. Limitations of space and means usually 
require that a science study collection follow the lines of a 
specialty in order not to be superficial and relatively use- 
less. On the other hand, exhibits must be rather com- 
prehensive, though not necessarily exhaustive, in order 
to meet the needs of educational work. 

166 


SCIENCE COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 167 


SCIENCE STUDY COLLECTION 


The study collection is called upon to assist in identify- 
ing specimens found locally and to furnish materials for 
research. A local collection is adequate to the first pur- 
pose, of course, and the work of forming such a collec- 
tion in any branch of science offers ample opportunity 
for original investigation. Few small museums find occa- 
sion or facilities to undertake anything more ambitious. 
Efforts should be made to extend the collection in direc- 
tions for which the local region offers unusual material. 
Almost every locality is a good collecting ground for some 
specialty, and by taking advantage of opportunities, a 
museum may add greatly to the importance of its series 
and also prepare itself to assist other institutions. 

Because of the character of museum materials, the 
research worker who is drawn to a museum—be he a 
member of the staff or a visiting student—is likely to be 
one whose interest is primarily in classification and no- 
menclature. Such investigators usually carry on some 
collecting in connection with their studies, and material 
so acquired ultimately becomes part of the study collec- 
tion if the worker is connected with the museum. In this 
way the collection naturally becomes an instrument of 
identification, and the usefulness of the material is en- 
hanced by its use. Given the interest, the development 
follows. 

Thus, so far as the study collection is concerned, local 
scope, treatment of all the natural sciences, and emphasis 
on collecting and taxonomy are to be expected. 


PERMANENT SCIENCE EXHIBITS 


The exhibits are called upon to deal with natural his- 
tory in such a way that a general view of the more impor- 
tant facts and laws of nature may be gotten from them. 


168 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Therefore, they are required to be much more than a syn- 
opsis of the study collection; they should convey an under- 
standing of the work of natural forces as manifested by 
inanimate objects and living creatures in the out-of-doors. 
This is a difficult undertaking, and one which might ab- 
sorb the entire energies of a large institution. But how- 
ever modest they may be, exhibits may be designed to pre- 
sent the same whole—slenderness of resources limiting 
elaborateness of treatment rather than range of subject 
matter. The following outline suggests the essentials of 
permanent exhibits: 


EARTH—origin, geologic forces that have transformed it 
and stages through which it has passed, materials and 
structure with special reference to locality. 

Fossits—character of fossils, evolutionary series, local 
fossils. 

BroLocy—lifeless and living matter, the cell, simple 
organisms, tissues, elements of physiology, embryol- 
ogy and heredity. 

PLANTS—plant structure and classification, synopsis of 
local flora. 

ANIMALS—animal structure and classification, synopsis 
of local fauna. 


Mounted or preserved specimens are used extensively, 
but pictures and models are necessary to bring out certain 
subjects. Groups are usually employed; they are ideal 
for synoptic presentation of such subjects as life associa- 
tions—plants and animals of the desert, the forest, the 
ocean, fresh water and other environments. 

Thus in the permanent exhibits wide geographic scope, 
treatment of all the natural sciences, and emphasis upon 
principles are appropriate. 


SCIENCE COLLECTIONS AND EXHIBITS 169 


TEMPORARY SCIENCE EXHIBITS 


Temporary exhibits afford opportunity to touch here 
and there upon subject matter which lends itself rather 
poorly to presentation in the permanent exhibits, chiefly 
because it requires detailed elaboration. This matter 
is applied science—science in relation to man. Popular 
interest attaches to all branches of this field and treat- 
ments of them may be of great practical usefulness. 

Personal hygiene and public health are especially fruit- 
ful fields. Exhibition material that is appropriate for 
temporary installation may be secured from national 
organizations interested in cancer, tuberculosis, child 
health and related subjects, and rmuseums may contrib- 
ute largely to health education by interesting themselves 
in such possibilities. Science as applied to the farm 
offers a further series of opportunities in connection with 
which the U. S. Department of Agriculture is invariably 
ready to cooperate through its local agencies. 

The temporary exhibits also afford means of interpret- 
ing the most important current events in science. An 
eclipse, an earthquake or a discovery may be explained 
in a simple exhibit which may actually be more effective 
because of any informality or crudeness it may have in 
consequence of hasty preparation. 

Living plants and animals are often used to advantage 
as temporary exhibits. A certain western museum has 
two tables near the entrance—one for local plants and the 
other for local animals. Every week a new living individ- 
ual is placed on each table in a pot, tray or cage as re- 
quired, and nine persons in ten who enter the museum 
inspect these two exhibits and read the typewritten labels 
carefully. Quite like this plan is that of a table upon 
which cut or growing wild flowers are shown in contin- 
ually changing combinations as the season progresses. 


170 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Living insects may also be shown. From such installa- 
tions it is but a step to outdoor exhibits. 


REFERENCES— 


There is an extensive literature on science collections and 
exhibits which can be found through the general references 
listed in Appendix G. The following titles are noted because 
they touch upon certain key problems. 


BAKER, FRANK C. Suggestions for an educational exhibit of 
molluscs. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1909, 3: 56-59. 
Bumpus, H. C., and Cumminecs, C. E. (Series of articles out- 
lining plans for science exhibits.) Hobbies (Published by 
Buffalo Soc. Natural Sciences), Dec. 1925. 

JOHNSON, CHARLES W. ‘The insect collections of a museum. 
Museum Work, Feb. 1919, 1: 154-158. 

Morris, Epwarp L. The possibilities of botanical exhibits. 
Proc. Amer. Ass’n Museums, 1912, 6: 105-108. 

Warp, Henry L. Exhibition of fossils and skeletons in pop- 
ular museums. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1910, 4: 100— 
103. 


XXX 
COLLECTING 


To the scientist, collecting is field work—hunting birds 
and mammals, capturing invertebrates with net, dredge 
or other apparatus, searching for plants, digging for fos- 
sils and scanning quarries for rocks and minerals. To 
the historian, it is prowling about shops, delving into 
attics, ransacking files and interviewing old inhabitants; 
or, if the interest is in archeology, collecting is excavating 
for remains. ‘To the art collector it is chiefly purchasing. 
The director and staff members of a small museum may 
indulge in all of these activities from time to time. 

In most kinds of collecting there is opportunity to en- 
list volunteer help, but in doing this two dangers are 
likely to be encountered. In the first place, amateur 
collecting is usually indiscriminate and destructive. Ser- 
ious vandalism results from untutored efforts to collect 
living creatures and to explore archeological deposits. 
A museum stands for conservation; it should emphasize 
its specific needs and discourage rampant gathering; it 
should lay stress upon opportunities for preserving wild 
life and historic deposits as outdoor exhibits or as treas- 
ures which untrained hands should not molest. 

The second danger is that the amateur collector will 
not make proper records in the course of even the most 
restrained collecting. An object without data may be 
useless. 

The most profitable field for amateur effort is that of 
local history. Certain of the homes in every commun- 
ity contain objects and records of the utmost historic 
importance, some of which may be attracted to a mus- 

17I 


172 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


eum. Much material of this sort is looked upon as junk 
until discovered by someone who understands its impor- 
tance. Newspaper articles are very effective in bringing 
things to light. 

Local museums may view with concern the activities 
of motor tourists in picking up antiques and taking them 
away, chiefly to the large cities where ultimately many of 
them come upon the market. Public spirit will prevent 
the disappearance of much really important material if 
people are educated to look upon a museum as an agency 
through which they may discharge their stewardship of 
heirlooms. | | 

The technique of collecting is treated quite fully in the 
literature of museum work. 


REFERENCES— 


BLakE, S. F. Directions for collecting flowering plants and 
ferns. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1920, Circular 76, 
8 pp. 

Homes, WILLIAM HENRY and Mason, Otis Turron. In- 
structions to collectors of historical and anthropological 
specimens. U. S. National Museum, 1902, Bulletin 309, 
Part Q, 16 pp. 

Lutz, FRANK E. How to collect and preserve insects. Amer- 
ican Museum of Natural History, 1914, Guide Leaflet 39, 
2I pp. 

Rowley, JOHN. Taxidermy and museum exhibition. New 
York. D. Appleton & Co., 1925, 331 pp. | 

Tasstn, Wirt. Directions for collecting minerals. U. S. 
National Museum, 1895, Bulletin 39, Part H, 6 pp. 


Other titles may be found in the Bibliography of museums 
and museumology, for which see reference in Appendix G. 


XXXI 


MUSEUM RECORDS_ 


THE importance of adequate and accurate records of 
museum collections can hardly be overstressed. 

Although many seemingly disparate methods of keep- 
ing records are in use, the sheer force of circumstances 
has made all successful systems fundamentally alike. A 
method embodying the essentials may be none too cum- 
bersome for the simplest needs, and yet it is capable of 
development to any degree. ‘The only necessary differ- 
ences between the methods of a large museum and those 
of a small one are part of the paraphernalia required to 
make a large staff coordinate and to take care of the 
many details that result from the work of specialists. The 
greatest seeming disparities are produced by the use of 
many names for each thing, and the differences in layout 
of books and blank forms. ‘These various individualities 
disguise some established systems so completely that they 
appear to have little in common. 

The records described below may seem too elaborate 
for a small museum. However, as a matter of fact, the 
books and files are quite simple although the explanation 
of them may be confusing at first. The best way to set 
up a new system is to begin with the basic records and the 
index—dispensing with the others until the need for them 
becomes manifest. In the discussion, allusions are made 
to the registrar and the curators, but it must be under- 
stood that the methods are just as usable by the lone and 
unassisted director of a very small museum as by the staff 
of a larger institution. It is only for convenience, that 
functions are here regarded as attaching to different in- 
dividuals. 

173 


174 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


There are two basic, or irreplaceable, records and sev- 
eral auxiliary, or derived, ones. 


BASIC RECORDS 
The basic records are: 


ACCESSION Booxk—a list of materials received, by lot, in 
the order of arrival, with a record of the character of 
each lot and business transactions involved. 


Note. An accession, by definition, is a batch of mate- 
rial received at one time from one source. It repre- 
sents a single transaction and may include one object 
or many. ‘The material need not be an acquisition; 
it may be received on approval or loan; it may ie a 
travelling exhibit. 

CaTALOG—a list of single objects or specimens, in the 
order in which they are worked into the collections, 
with a record of the character of each object and facts 
about it that may have value to a student. 


These records articulate with the collections by num- 
bers—of which there are two for each object: 


ACCESSION NUMBER—the number assigned in the acces- 
sion book. The letter A is prefixed to this number to 
distinguish it. If there are several objects in one 
accession, the accession number is the same for all of 
them, but if, in the case of material received on ap- 
proval or loan, it is desired to differentiate between the 
items of an accession, subscripts may be employed: 

A 1025 A1m025 A 1025 


? ? 


I 2 3 


x Some museums prefix the letters TR instead of A, but it would com- 
plicate this account needlessly to explain the usage. 


MUSEUM RECORDS 175 


Accession numbers should progress in one continuous 
series from the time the museum is founded. Large 
museums prevent the numbers from mounting too high 
by prefixing the year to the number and starting a new 
series annually—A 24-350 being the 350th accession of 
the year 1924. A small museum need not follow this 
practice. 

The accession number is affixed temporarily to ob- 
jects and may be marked only on the box or container 
of an accession which is stored before being unpacked. 
In due course it is replaced by the catalog number which 
is put permanently on every object that is acquired. 
The technique of numbering and tagging is the subject 
of the next chapter. 


CATALOG NUMBER—the number assigned in the catalog. 
Each object has a different number.‘ If there are sev- 
eral departments, each should be allotted a block of 
numbers and when a department has used up its num- 
bers it should receive, as a new assignment, the lowest 
block that remains unallotted. Science may need 
larger blocks of numbers at each assignment than his- 
tory or art. It is bad practice for each department to 
have its own independent series of numbers, even 
though initial letters be used to differentiate them. 
When only one series is used, a new department may 
be set off from an old one at any time without changing 
a single number or record of the material transferred. 
This is important for a growing museum. 

Catalog numbers are used up faster than accession 

t There is one class of exceptions to the rule that each catalog number 
belongs to one object only. In the case of coins, insects, shells or other 
material of which many duplicates may come from the same place at the 
same time and with the same data, the duplicates may all be given one 
catalog number, and a note made in the catalog of how many there are. 


If any objects of the lot should later be discovered to have notable individ- 
uality, they would be re-cataloged on new numbers of their own. 


176 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


numbers. To prevent awkwardly long numbers, the 
year may be prefixed and a new series begun annually. 
Under this plan, a department may use the same block 
of numbers each year. 


THE ACCESSION BOOK 


The accession record is usually kept in a bound book so 
that leaves cannot possibly be misplaced or lost. The 
book may be made to order or improvised with columns 
and headings so arranged that the record of each accession 
occupies a single line across both pages. 

Entries are made by the registrar. Immediately upon 
receipt, each accession’ is given the lowest vacant acces- 
sion number, and thé following information—or as much 
thereof as may be known—is entered. 


Acc. No. 

Description (including condition, number of ob- 
jects, marks on packages, etc.) | 

Date of receipt 

Received from 

Address 

How acquired—on approval, gift, purchase, ex- 
change, loan 

Value or price 

Collector 

Locality 

When collected res 

Remarks (including reference to page of minutes 
if board takes action) 

Department assignment 

Cat. Nos. (These are not assigned until objects are 
catalogued) 


« Library books and material for the lending collection need not be acces- 
sioned unless desired. 


MUSEUM RECORDS 17 


It may be that all facts are not known, and in that 
event some items may be skipped or a general statement 
made. For example, the entry under Description may be 
very general; ‘‘Two barrels of pottery.’’ In such cases 
further information will ultimately be reported back by 
the curator and will be filed to complete the accession 
record, as explained shortly. Bulls of lading, invoices, 
lists of objects, agreements of gift or loan, correspondence 
and other matter relating to any accession may be marked 
with the accession number and put in an envelope or 
folder and filed by number. Envelopes 4 by 9% inches 
are always obtainable and are accommodated on end by 
standard filing cabinets; regular correspondence file fold- 
ers are preferred by some museums. 

When borrowed objects are returned or pieces held on 
approval are declined, record is made in the accession 
book in the Remarks column. If acquired material 
includes some undesirable things that are discarded 
_ before cataloging, brief notation of the fact may be made 
in the accession record. 

The catalog numbers that are assigned in due course 
_ to all acquired objects are reported back by a curator to 
the registrar and are added to the entry in the accession 
book. If the list is a long one, it may be filed in an acces- 
sion envelope and the words ‘‘See envelope”’ written in 
the book to show that the entry has been completed. 


THE CATALOG 


The catalog may be either a bound book, a loose-leaf 
book or a card file. ‘To be sure, a bound volume keeps 
records from straying, but most museums use cards and 
take care of them. A rod-lock is helpful in this connec- 
tion. Cards of 6 by 4 inch or 8 by 5 inch size are most 
serviceable. They should be of heavy paper rather than 
cardboard, so that carbon copies can be made. Cards of 


178 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


different departments may be of different colors, or bear 
department stamps. 

Ordinarily, material that is acquired should be cat- 
aloged soon after being accessioned, but some lots may 
have to remain packed, and therefore uncataloged, for 
months or even years. Objects that are not acquired 
need not be cataloged at all—the accession number being 
sufficient, temporarily, for purposes of identification. 
However, no confusion is caused by cataloging any 
object that is to be retained for a long time; to do so may 
be convenient. 

The catalog is kept by the curators, and each curator 
may have his own part of it—called a department catalog. 

In a museum having a registrar, that officer should 
type all cards from memoranda supplied by curators and 
information in the accession book. He should make an 
original and two carbon copies—the original for a general 
catalog kept in the registrar’s office, one copy for the 
appropriate department catalog and one for the index, 
which is still to be described. 

Cards should provide for entries as follows: 


Cat. No. 

Acc. No. 

Description? 

Collector 

Locality 

When collected 

Condition—good, fair, bad 

Original No. (number assigned in the field or by 
previous owner) 

Identified by 

Remarks 


*Each department may introduce its own subdivisions, for example: 
history—name, material, history, use; science—name, sex, growth; art— 
title, artist, school, medium, period, size, marks, value. 


MUSEUM RECORDS 179 


This list includes three items—Collector, Locality and 
When Collected—which are transcribed from the accession 
record. It does not include the following, which are in 
the accession book: Date of receipt, Received from, Address, 
How acquired, Value or price. If any of these facts are 
needed in the catalog, they may be entered under Re- 
marks. Ample space should be left under this heading 
since the carbon copy used for the index is likely to receive 
additional notations from time to time. 

If a cataloged object is removed from the collections 
for purpose of gift, exchange, sale or discard, its catalog 
card is cancelled but not removed from its place in the 
file; the number should never be used over again. 
The card of any borrowed object that has been cata- 
loged is treated in the same way when the object 
is returned. All such deletions may be brought to- 
gether for quick reference in a disposal record described 
below. 


AUXILIARY RECORDS 


Besides the accession book and the catalog, which are 
basic irreplaceable records, there are the following aux- 
iliary, or derived ones. 


INDEX—a systematic rearrangement of listings in the 
catalog. It is a key to kinds of objects; therefore, it 
indexes the catalog by subject. 

Synonyms: specimen index, object index, finding list, 
location file. 


Donor RECORD—a key to donors and their gifts. It may 
include sources from which purchases are made and 
exchanges received. 

Synonyms: donor index, source index, source list. 


180 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


LOAN RECORD—a memorandum record of loans made or 
received. (This has nothing to do with the regular 
lending collection which has independent records.) 


DISPOSAL RECORD—a list of material exchanged, given 
away, sold or discarded. 


THE INDEX 


The index is a file made up of one carbon copy of each 
catalog card. Some museums reserve a portion of the 
card for a sketch; others paste a photograph on the back 
of the card in the case of any object that is sufficiently 
important. Art museums which have staff photographers 
and are able to carry out the plan extensively, use a 
sensitized card on the back of which the photograph 
may be printed directly. 

The arrangement of cards is by subject classification 
corresponding to that of material in the study collections. 
The file is kept by the curators and each curator may have 
his own part of it—called a depariment index. 

The index serves to organize information contained in 
the catalog. It shows what material the museum has 
along any line, and furnishes a flexible record to which 
new items may be added as facts are brought to light 
through work on the collections. Each new notation 
should be dated and initialed by the person—presuma- 
bly a specialist—who is responsible for it. 

The whereabouts of material that is out of its place 
in the study collections—whether on exhibition or on 
loan—should be shown in the index. The notes are 
made in pencil so that they can be erased. They are 
curators’ memoranda—not part of the regular ae rec- 
ord, which is still to be described. 

Cards of a distinctive color may be used to index ob- 


MUSEUM RECORDS 181 


jects that are not actually in the museum collections. In 
this way a register of private collections and of certain 
outdoor exhibits may be maintained if desired. 


THE DONOR RECORD 


The donor record is an alphabetic card list of persons 
from whom gifts have been received, and it may also 
include names of those from whom material has been 
acquired by purchase or exchange. Small 5 by 3 inch 
cards usually provide ample space. 

The first card for each person should show full name 
and address. If one donor’s record requires more than a 
single card, each subsequent card may have its upper 
margin clipped off to facilitate reference, but it should 
bear the donor’s name. The back of a card should 
never be used. The material received is indicated by 
accession number, and, for convenience, the date descrip- 
tion, value and whether gift, loan, purchase or exchange 
may be noted. All of this can be put on one line in most 
cases. 


THE LOAN RECORD 


As already indicated, records of loans received are 
entered in the accession book, and memoranda of loans 
made are penciled in the index. The loan record is an 
assembly of these items arranged to serve as a reminder 
of dates upon which loans are due to be returned either to 
or by the museum. A card file with dated guides lends 
itself admirably to the purpose. 

Loans received and loans made are both recorded in 
the same file and, for economy, may be on the same 
form of card, but to differentiate between the two, differ- 
ent colors or distinguishing marks should be used. The 
facts to be shown are: 


182 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Name (of borrower of lender) 'To be returned on 
Address Date of loan 

Acc. No. (of loans received) Date of return 
Cat. No (s). (of loans made) 

Description 

Department 

Remarks 


A loan of many objects made at one time requires only 
one card, but if it is to be returned in parts at different 
times, each part should be treated as a separate loan. 
The cards are filed by the date—approximate or exact— 
on which the loan is to be returned. When a loan is 
returned, its card should be removed from the chrono- 
logical series, and, after the date of return is noted, it 
should be filed permanently in the back of the drawer, 
by the name of the borrower or lender. 

The loan record should be kept by the registrar, and if 
a curator desires to make or secure a loan he should trans- 
act the business through the registrar’s office. Of course 
this does not refer to operation of the regular lending col- 
lection, discussed in chapters XXVI and XLI. 


THE DISPOSAL RECORD 


As already noted, if a useless object is weeded from an 
accession before cataloging, the only record needed is a 
memorandum in the accession book under Remarks. 
However, for a cataloged object that is exchanged, given 
away, sold or discarded, some record in addition to the 
cancellation on the catalog card is useful. To bring 
scattered cancellations together, the disposal record is 
kept, but no time should be wasted in elaborating it. An 
informal chronological journal kept by the registrar in a 
blank book is sufficient. Each entry may include: 


MUSEUM RECORDS 183 


Date 

Cat. No. 

Description 

Exchange, gift, sale or discard (and circumstances 
such as material received in exchange or price) 

Name of recipient (zf exchange, gift or sale) 

Address 


XXXII 
NUMBERING AND TAGGING 


For purposes of identification, every object should be 
numbered. 

At the time of accessioning, the accession number— 
with its prefixed A—is marked temporarily on the object 
or its container, or on a tag or gummed label which is 
attached. Some museums prefix the two letters L A 
(lent accession) to the number of a borrowed object, so 
that it may be recognized instantly. For a traveling col- 
lection, it is helpful to use a sticker or tag bearing the 
initials of the museum to differentiate it from other bor- 
rowers’ labels which accumulate en route. 

When an object is cataloged its catalog number— 
which, unlike the accession number, is different for each 
object—is affixed permanently. If possible, it should be 
inscribed on the object itself, but failing that, it may be 
put on tag, base, or container. The accession number 
is then obliterated, or, if it has been carried on the con- 
tainer only, it is dismissed from mind. Data and num- 
bers of previous owners or of collectors should not be 
disturbed unless they are actually disfiguring, in which 
event they may be copied into the catalog in the col- 
umns provided for the purpose. Original tags may de- 
serve to be pasted into the catalog, or otherwise kept. 

If an object has several parts that may be separated, 
customarily all are numbered, each part being given its 
own letter: for example, 551a, 551b, 551c. The letters 
should be noted in the Remarks column of the catalog. 

A tag, if one is used, may bear data in addition to the 
catalog number, but such label-tags should not be con- 
fused with exhibition labels which are of a very different 

184 


NUMBERING AND TAGGING 185 


sort and should never be depended upon for numbers or 
other records. Exhibition labels are usually not attached 
to objects and therefore are frequently transposed or lost. 

The character of each object determines the way in 
which its number is to be affixed. For direct marking 
a convenient medium is a paint made by mixing Chinese 
vermilion oil color with siccatif de courtray—both obtain- 
able from any dealer in artists’ supplies. Marks made 
with this paint are lasting in use, but they may be erased. 
For light-colored objects, waterproof ink is excellent if 
the surface will take it. There should be some system of 
placing numbers, particularly on large objects, so that 
they may be found easily. Bases or backs of objects are 
usually the best places for them, but almost any prac- 
tice is satisfactory if it is followed consistently for} each 
class of material. On anything that cannot be moved 
easily, the number should be in sight but need not be 
obtrusive. 

Some objects are not markable, and therefore must 
be tagged—but not with gummed stickers that fall off. 
For each class of material there is a more or less special 
tagging technique. An alcoholic specimen usually has a 
slip of paper inserted in the bottle with it, or a cloth 
tape tag attached to it by a loop of thread. The num- 
ber may be penned with waterproof ink or stamped. 
An insect label is a very small paper one that may be put 
on the pin. Bird and mammal skins and many other 
kinds of objects are tagged with printed paper labels on 
which name, locality, date and other facts are written. 

Objects of wood and any that have wooden bases may 
be tagged with small metal plates into which numbers 
are stamped with steel dies. Neat plates of German 
silver, called wmbrella plates, may be purchased, * but cheap 


t These are sold by the New York Stencil Works, 100 Nassau Street, 
New York City. The most useful size is No. 2. 


186 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


substitutes may be made by cutting strips of copper or 
aluminum. Very small objects, such as shells or coins, 
are usually kept in little cardboard boxes or trays which 
bear the numbers, but the attendant risk of misplacement 
should not be taken if it is practicable to mark numbers 
directly. Scientific types—that is, specimens from which 
species new to science are described—should be marked 
in some distinctive way. A red label or tag is sometimes 
used for the purpose. 

The standard method of numbering or tagging each 
class of material would be known to any specialist whose 
aid might be sought in organizing and arranging the 
collections. 


XXXITI 
PREPARATION 


IN museum parlance, the term preparation is understood 
to mean the process of making objects ready for the study 
collections or the exhibits. It includes preservation, 
restoration and mounting of material, whether carried 
on in the field, shop or studio, and also takes in model- 
making and kindred arts in which molding, casting, color- 
ing and various other mechanical or artistic processes are 
involved. Plants and animals, being perishable, require 
more attention than inanimate objects, and therefore a 
great majority of preparation methods are those which 
apply to science materials, but much of the technique of 
cleaning, repairing and preserving is applicable to objects 
of other kinds—especially works of art. 

The following classification’ is suggestive of the variety 
of preparation methods. The materials of history seem 
not to have much recognition, but this is because such 
objects are either treated by general methods, or else 
require no special preparation. 


4 COLLECTING?, PREPARING, RESTORING 


.41 MODELING, MOLDING, CASTING, COLORING 


.4II Modeling, Pattern making 
I In clay, plastilin, etc. 
2 In wax, paraffin, etc. 


t This is part of a classification of museum methods which was prepared 
by the author and published in tentative form in the 11th edition of Melvil 
Dewey’s Decimal classification. An extensive revision appears in the 
12th edition, from proof of which the present excerpt is made. It is all 
built upon the number 069, which for simplicity is here omitted—only the 
decimal divisions being shown. 

4 Collecting involves preparation in the field. 


187 


188 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


In plaster 

In gelatin, glue, etc. 

In celluloid 

In glass 

In wood 

In papier-maché, paper, etc. 
Other 


412 Molding 

In clay, sand, etc. 

In wax, paraffin, etc. 

In plaster 

In gelatin, glue, etc. 

In celluloid 

In papier-maché, paper, etc. 
Other 


413 Casting 

In wax, paraffin, etc. 

In plaster 

In gelatin, glue, ete. 

In celluloid 

In papier-mAché, paper, etc. 


Other 
414 Electroplate reproduction 


COoaonmnhWN O ON ANH W 


Oo Om WwW bN 


415 Coloring 

On fabric 

On wax, paraffin, etc. 

On plaster 

On gelatin, glue, etc. 

On celluloid 

On glass 

On wood 

On papier-mAché, paper, etc. 
Other 


Oo ON DAU BRW DNDN 


PREPARATION 189 


.42 MOopDELS CONSTRUCTION 
422 Relief maps, Panoramic models 
423 Ethnological models 


424 Architectural models 
Including exteriors and interiors 


425 Caves, etc. 


.426 Mechanical models 
Including astronomical, physical and 
chemical models 


427 Animals: entire or dissected 
Isolated organs or tissues 
Invertebrates 
Vertebrates 

Fishes 

6 Batrachians 
Reptiles 
Man 


428 Plants 
Plant accessories for groups, etc. 
2 Fruits, vegetables, etc. 


A OO ONT SE OY ND. et 


.429 Miscellaneous 
I Prepared foods 


.43 GROUPS CONSTRUCTION 
432 Artistic Composition, Layout 
433 Field work 


434 Background 
2 Transparent photographic 
3 Opaque photographic 
5 Painted 


190 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


435 Foreground 

.436 Case and lighting 

.437 Small-scale groups 

.438 Enlarged-scale, groups 

.447 PROTECTION OF MUSEUM MATERIALS 


2 Museum pests 
Poisoning, insecticides, pestifuges, 
fumigation 


4 Prevention of decay by chemical action, 
rust, bronze diseases, etc. 


.45 SCIENCE OBJECTS 


455 Rocks, Minerals 
4 Field work 
6 Laboratory work, Mounting 


.456 Fossils 
4 Field work . 
6 Laboratory work, Mounting 


.458 Plants 
4 Collecting, Pressing, Preserving 
6 Mounting 
For reproduction in wax, etc., see 


428 , 
.459 Animals and animal tissues 
2 Invertebrates 
22 Field notes, Sketches, Photographic 
studies 
24 Capturing, Killing, Preserving 
25 Transporting, Storing 


Includes preserving fluids, etc. 


26 


67 


68 
682 
683 


684 
685 
686 
687 
688 
689 


PREPARATION IgI 


Mounting: dry or in fluids 
Includes both whole-mounts 
and dissections. For reproduc- 
tion in wax, etc., see .4272 
Nests, workings, etc. 


Vertebrates 

Field notes, Sketches, Photographic 
studies 

Capturing, Killing, Preserving 

Transporting, Storing 

Skinning, Tanning, Taxidermy 
For reproduction in wax, etc., 

see .4276 
Nests, workings, etc. 


Anatomical material 
Field notes, etc. 
Fluid and jelly methods for soft 
tissues and embryos 
Dry methods for soft tissues 
Bone, Skeletons, Cartilage 
Gross clearing 
Gross staining and sectioning 
Injection 
Other methods 


.46 INDUSTRY MATERIAL, COMMERCE MATERIAL 


.47. ArT OBJECTS 


472 


473 
2 


4 


8 


Architecture 


Sculpture 


Restoration 
Cleaning 
Includes cleaning of casts 


Ceramics, Glass 


192 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


474 Drawings 


475 Paintings 
2 Restoration 
3 Repainting 
4 Relining 

5 Rebacking 
6 Cradling 

7 Varnishing 
8 Gilding 


.476 Engravings 
2 Cleaning, Washing 
3 Mounting 
4 Matting 


477 Textiles, Weaving 
2 Repairing 
3 Cleaning 

4 Mounting 


.478 Wood work 
5 Metal work 
479 Other 


.49 History MATERIAL 


There is an extensive literature of short articles and 
pamphlets bearing upon one or another of these topics, 
and a few general treatises. A selection of useful refer- 
ences is appended. It is quite impossible to condense 
this mass of information for purposes of this book, but 
museum workers may easily familiarize themselves with 
references which bear upon their particular interests. 

A good part of the technique required for the work of a 
small museum may be mastered in a short time by a 


PLATE 10 


ee 


c Bes ae es ee 
Courtesy of The Van Dorn Iron Works Company. 
METAL PILING UNIT FOR STANDARD TRAYS. 


4 
wad 
{ 
< 
. 
“4 
Fete. - nu 
. 
| 
¢ 
, ‘ 
: 
{ i 
wre i 
: 3 
0 
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ane ' 
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os ¥ >. ‘ 


PREPARATION 193 


reasonably skillful person. Some museums avail them- 
selves of part-time services of young people who, through 
interest and natural dexterity, become very proficient in 
general work and who may learn some taxidermy. There 
is usually need also for the assistance of a trained pre- 
parator, but funds may not be available to employ such 
a technician for full time. The best solution of this 
problem is cooperation—several museums contributing 
to the salary of one man and sharing his time. Failing 
this, a small museum may seek the help of a larger insti- 
tution or give its patronage to one of the few commer- 
cial taxidermists who do good work. 

So far as practicable, a museum should preserve data, 
drawings, photographs and molds from which models are 
made, in order to assist any other museum that may 
desire duplicates. Such helpfulness is a manifestation of 
the new spirit in museum work. 


REFERENCES— 


The literature on preparation relates almost entirely to the 
materials of science, and is quite extensive. For titles on spe- 
cial methods, reference may be made to the Bibliography of 
museums and museumology and the index of serials published 
by The American Association of Museums—for which see 
references in Appendix G. The most useful general treatises 
are: 


HERMANN, A. Modern laboratory methods in vertebrate 
paleontology. Bulletin American Museum of Natural 
History, 1909, 29: 283-331. . 

Lucas, A. Antiques. Their restoration and preservation. 
London, Edward Arnold ‘& Co., 1924, 136 pp. With a 
bibliography. 

ROWLEY, JOHN. Taxidermy and museum exhibition. New 
York, D. Appleton & Co., 1925, 331 pp. 


194 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 
The following papers relating to art objects may be noted: 


Ivins, Wittiam M., Jr. Mounting and preservation of 
prints. Museum Work, March 1919, 1: 173-179. 

TacKsON, MarcareT T. Cleaning of plaster casts. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1914, 8: 150-151 


XXXIV 
HOUSING THE STUDY COLLECTIONS 


THE study collections should be so arranged and 
housed that without inconvenience any object may be 
brought out for examination. Since the amount of 
material may be relatively large for the space available, 
compact arrangement is necessary, but material must 
not be packed away in such fashion that it is inaccessible. 
If this is done the purpose of study collections is defeated. 

For small objects suitable boxes or trays are usually 
provided and those which contain related material should 
be interchangeable. For the accommodation of these 
containers, shelves or racks are necessary. Fairly large 
objects are shelved individually; very large objects are 
usually kept on exhibition and, therefore, do not com- 
plicate the problem. 

Everything must be protected more or less from dust, 
and objects of some kinds need to be kept behind tight 
doors which afford protection from both dust and insects. 
If cases are made for this purpose, doors should be packed 
with felt at the margins, but hermetic sealing should not 
be attempted as this favors the growth of molds. Excel- 
lent metal cases and compartments may be purchased,' 
but for some classes of material, ample protection is 
afforded by simple accommodations which may be im- 
provised. Trays like those shown in the accompany- 


t For general purposes the best storage cases are believed to be the piling 
units manufactured by the Van Dorn Iron Works Company, New York. 
Other equipment for the same purpose is made by the Cambridge Botan- 
ical Supply Company, Waverley, Massachusetts; Kny-Scheerer Corpora- 
tion, New York City; and the Weber Showcase and Fixture Company, 
Los Angeles. 


195 


196 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ing figure are much in use. The sides are of pine and 
the bottom of homosote—a cheap but serviceable compo- 
sition board.! The overhanging edges of the bottom 
may be shellacked to prevent wear. If necessary, these 
trays may be stacked on the floor until funds are avail- 
able to provide housing for them as shown in the drawing. 

For the preservation of science specimens various spe- 
cial boxes, bottles and mounts have been developed. 
These are familiar to everyone who works with such 
collections.. History materials are so diversified in 
character that shelves, trays, racks and other means are 
necessary for their accommodation. Many art objects 
are kept in similar ways. Framed pictures, in prefer- 
ence to being stacked, should be hung on large rectangu- 
lar screens made usually of gas pipe with coarse wire mesh 
stretched over it. Mounted photographs and prints are 
kept in filing cabinets and portfolios. 


PROTECTION FROM PESTS 


There are several species of insects which destroy 
fabrics, feathers and a surprising variety of other sub- 
stances. A minute beetle, the common clothes moth and 
a primitive insect, the silver-fish, are the most trouble- 
some. Precautions against ravages of these pests are 
taken in the preparation of many objects, but usually 
vigilance has to be kept up indefinitely. : 

The surest way to get rid of pests is to fumigate with 
hydrocyanic acid gas in an airtight compartment, but this 
is a dangerous procedure which has resulted in loss of 
human life. The practice is not recommended. An- 
other fumigant that is widely used is carbon bisulphide, 
but this is highly explosive and has caused serious acci- 
dents. Naphthalene is claimed by some to be ineffective; 
moth balls are useless. 


t Homosote is made by the Pantosote Company, Trenton, N. J. 


HOUSING THE STUDY COLLECTIONS 197 


There are two insecticides which are coming into gen- 
eral use. The first is para methyl dichloro benzin—a 
crystalline compound of not unpleasant odor which seems 
to have no ill effects upon persons who are exposed to it. 
It is usually enclosed in pill boxes with perforated covers, 
and put in cases, boxes, drawers or wherever needed. 
The other substance is carbon tetrachloride. It maybe 
dropped or poured on objects that are infested, and after 
evaporation it will be found to have caused the death of 
any pests with which it has come in contact. It does 
not stain or do other damage even to delicate textiles or 
the wings of butterflies. 


REFERENCES— 


BrueEs, C. T. The insect pests of museums. Proc. Amer. 
Ass’n. Museums, 1909, 3: 33-54. 

HoucH, WALTER. The preservation of museum specimens 
from insects and the effects of dampness. U.S. National 
Museum Report, 1887, 549-558. 

TOOTHAKER, CHARLES R. Fumigation. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. 
Museums, 1908, 2: I19-I23. 


D2. BGs, 
EXHIBITION CASES? 


CASES are necessary evils required to protect objects 
from dust and the fingers of museum visitors. ‘The less 


obtrusive they are, the better, but since they cannot be — 


altogether inconspicuous they should be tasteful. A suit- 
able case is a setting for its contents as well as a protec- 
tion to them. 


TYPES OF CASES 


Cases are described as vertical or horizontal according 
to the position of the glass through which the objects in 
the case are viewed. ‘Three types—two vertical and one 
horizontal—are in most: general use. 


WALL CasE—a vertical case with glass front and opaque 
back, intended, as the name implies, to be set against 
the wall. The relatively narrow edges are,of glass, 
and usually the top is of ground glass. 


CENTER CASE—a vertical case with all four sides of glass, 
intended to be set in an open space and viewed from 
any quarter. The top is of glass to admit light. 


TABLE CASE—a horizontal case with glass top through 
which objects are viewed from above. The relatively 
low sides are of glass. 


t Cases are manufactured by Rand Kardex Corporation (of which the 
Library Bureau is now a division), New York City; The Van Dorn Iron 
Works Company, New York City; Kny-Scherer Corporation, New York 
City and A. N. Russell & Sons Company, Ilion, New York. Catalogs are 
mailed on request by these concerns. The Art Institute of Chicago, The 
Cleveland Museum of Art and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, make 
special cases to the capacity of their shops. 


198 


——- ° 


PLATE 12 


Courtesy of The Newark Museum. 
B.—WALL CASE WITH METAL FRAME AND WOOD SOLID BASE. 


ah le 


2 


i 


(Bless 


EXHIBITION CASES 199 


There are many other kinds of cases in use—the com- 
moner being the desk case, which is a table case with slop- 
ing top, the combipation case, which is a desk case sur- 
mounted at*the back by a small wall case, the A-case, 
which is a center case with two slanting sides like steep 
flys of a tent, and the alcove case, which is the equivalent 
of two wall cases back to back. However, a wall, center 
or table case will serve any purpose. Other types are 
not as generally useful as these three and therefore are 
not as good investments. Special cases are required for 
museum groups and these are described in the chapter 
on groups—page 236. 


TYPES OF BASES 


Of bases to support exhibition cases there are two com- 
mon types: the solid base, which is essentially a box, and 
the Jeg base, which is a specially designed table. A wall 
case should have a solid base; a table case, a leg base; 
a center case, the one or the other, depending upon height. 
A leg base less than perhaps 24 inches high looks squatty; 
a solid base of more than that height is clumsy in appear- 
ance. 

A solid base is provided with a toeboard at the floor 
line to take the contact of shoes and mops. This also 
adds to the appearance by making a sort of sub-base. 
The practice of utilizing a solid base as a cabinet for stor- 
age is strongly discouraged as false economy. 


DIMENSIONS 


Comparison between measurements of carefully de- 
signed cases and dimensions that are required for elimina- 
tion of the eye-strain and muscle-strain which contribute 
to museum fatigue, show that ideals are usually sacrificed 
to some extent for practical reasons. Wall cases tend 


200 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


to be too low-based; wall cases and table cases, too 
deep; table cases and center cases, too wide. These de- 
partures represent efforts to secure maximum space and 
a degree of standardization, as well as to meet the needs 
of both adults and children. Inthe same way, dimensions 
which might be put forward as general standards, in 
order to be practical, must embody some compromises. 
With this understanding the following specifications are 
recommended: . 


WALL CasE—over all, 84 inches high by 60 inches wide 
by 14 inches deep; solid base 24 inches high. See 
Plate 12. 

Note. For small objects a shallow case is desirable, 
but for general use the greater depth is necessary. 
Small objects may be brought forward by the use 
of a false back or individual supports. 


CENTER CASE—over all, 60 inches long by 34 inches wide 
by 66 inches high; leg base 30 inches high. See 
Plate 13. 

Note. For very large objects greater exhibition 
height may be secured by use of a solid base only 
18 inches high. The top of the case in either 
event should be at the same level, namely, 66 
inches from the floor. 


TABLE CasE—over all, 60 inches long by 24 inches wide 
by 38 inches high; leg base 30 inches high. See 
Plate 14. 


For special purposes, cases of special size may be re- 
quired, but ordinarily those of standard sizes are more 
useful. False backs and bottoms, to decrease depth for 
small objects, are described in the chapter on insite 


—page 217. 


et Eres 


= 


36 


30° 


A.—CENTER CASE OF SIZE PROPOSED AS STANDARD. 


Courtesy of The Anierican Museum of Natural History. 
B.—CENTER CASE WITH WOOD FRAME AND LEG BASE, 


EXHIBITION CASES 201 


MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 


The trend at present is strongly towards cases with 
metal frame and wood base, although all-metal cases 
and all-wood cases are in some favor. Metal—that is, 
either steel or bronze—is superior to wood for frame mem- 
bers because of its greater strength and the slenderness 
and grace of construction to which it lends itself in con- 
sequence. Wood is desirable for bases because it takes 
a good finish and is light and relatively inexpensive. 
Its use does not add appreciably to the fire hazard, be- 
cause museum fires start in basements and storages, not 
exhibition rooms. A conflagration spreading to the ex- 
hibits would probably destroy them even in metal 
cases. 

Wood is favored for frames by many people on account 
of the advantages that prompt general use of it for bases, 
namely, possibilities of finish, light weight and low cost. 

Ease of access to a case is important, and may be 
provided for in several different ways. The entire frame 
of a table or center case may be lifted from its base, but 
this is a difficult operation except with mechanical aid. 
The best lifting device which has been produced is a 
rack and pinion mechanism to be concealed in the base. 
It is employed in the so-called MacLean case which has 
never been commercialized, but which at times may be 
obtained to order from the museums mentioned in the 
footnote on page 198. Swinging and sliding doors are 
also used, but in the most generally adopted case there 
is a simple knock-down construction which permits any 
sash to be detached and taken out. Library Bureau 
bronze frame museum cases are made in this way. They 
are assembled with steel clips which may be put on by 
hand and removed with a lever-key. An approach to 
this construction is embodied in wood frame cases that 


202 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


have one or two removable sashes—a design adopted by 
many museums. Screws are used as fastenings. 

Most cases on the market have special packing in the 
joints to make them dust-tight and insect-proof. This 
is essential. 

Shelves are used to some extent, most often in wall 
cases. This subject is discussed in connection with in- 
stallation—page 218. 


FINISH 


The best stain for any wood part is generally considered 
to be warm walnut brown with a dull finish. Light gray 
and blue-gray are also much in use, but conspicuous 
colors are in bad taste and ‘black is advocated by few. 
Shiny finishes are invariably bad. 

Steel is enameled usually gray or green. Bronze is 
finished in gun-metal, statuary bronze or natural bronze. 
The last bears a close resemblance to the finest velvet 
finish on wood and is favored generally. 


THE PROBLEM OF COST 


The principal difficulty in the selection of cases is 
usually not one of design but of cost, and it is a very real 
difficulty to the small museum. Any museum cases 
which may be purchased are so expensive that a sub- 
stantial outlay is necessary to furnish even one exhibition 
room with them. Therefore many museums are forced 
to choose between buying second-hand cases and making 
their own. The former alternative is the simpler, but 
the supply of used museum cases is limited and therefore 
hundreds of cases that have seen service on candy counters 
and in jewelry stores are now to be found in museums. 
Without exception these makeshifts are unspeakabiy bad. 
It is better policy to use equipment funds for the purchase 


60° 2 
a ¥ 
‘o 
3 


A.—TABLE CASE OF SIZE PROPOSED AS STANDARD. 


Courtesy of Library Bureau Division, Rand Kardex Corporation. 


B.—TABLE CASE WITH METAL FRAME AND WOOD LEG BASE. 


Ay 


Pan : 
4 
i 
‘ 
' 


EXHIBITION CASES 203 


of a very inadequate number of good cases than to provide 
ample exhibition space in unsightly ones. A sound be- 
ginning is likely to be followed by healthy development, 
but initial progress in the wrong direction is usually 
difficult, if not impossible, to reverse. 

Some museums construct their cases. The larger in- 
stitutions have their own shops, but small museums usu- 
ally call upon local carpenters or cabinet makers for the 
work. 

In order to assist in the production of very cheap cases 
without too great sacrifice of standards, the following 
notes are appended. If a number of museums would 
make or purchase cases cooperatively, substantial savings 
could be affected. 


NOTES ON CASE MAKING 


Cases should never be built-in or attached permanently 
to the walls or floors. An exhibition space which is free 
of all fixed obstructions is the most desirable, because 
it can be arranged and rearranged as occasion may re- 
quire. 

The sizes given on page 200 are recommended. As 
material, either oak or whitewood is good; the latter is 
cheap, workable and takes an attractive finish. 


FRAME 


Plates 15 and 16 show construction of the frame. The 
required special moldings may be run off at the mill. 
They need not be heavier than indicated since rigidity of 
glass and not stoutness of wood members gives the 
needed strength. Putty should not be used to hold 
panes of glass as in a window sash, but instead, wood strips 
fastened with brads, as shown, are employed. However, 
putty spread thinly between the glass and the outside edge 


204 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


of the frame is effective in sealing the joint and holding 
the glass against slippage. If the joinery is done by an 
amateur, joints may be nailed without doweling. 

sashes which are removable may be held in place by 
screws. For convenience in lifting a sash after it has 
been unscrewed, detachable metal handles which engage 
lugs countersunk in the frame at two sides may be 
provided. 

Anyone with a screwdriver can unfasten a screwed sash, 
but the weight of the glass makes its removal difficult 
without the handles. Therefore wall cases and center 
cases are rarely invaded by thieves, but table cases, being 
smaller, are in danger of being robbed if they contain 
valuable material. The best fastening for such a case 
is that afforded by lugs along one edge of the removable 
top sash and a bar lock along the opposite edge. The 
lock should engage at two or three points and should be 
positive acting, not of spring type. 


BACK AND DECK 

The backs of wall cases and the bottoms, or decks, of 
all cases may be made of 14-inch vehisote—a composition 
board that does not warp, shrink or swell. The 
accompanying drawings show construction. It is im- 
portant that the deck be raised on cleats as indicated, 
because otherwise a false bottom may be required to 
bring objects up into full view. For proper display of 
small objects, false bottoms or backs may be necessary 
in any event. 7 

Case linings are discussed in the chapter on installation 


—page 217. 


BASE 


A solid base may be either plain or panelled, and it 
should have a 4-inch toeboard all around. Slate is the 


PLATE 15 


Fo oP 
a 


MOLDINGS IN CROSS-SECTION 


5 
4 
ny 
® 
i] 
i] 
t 
i] 
i] 
i] 
‘] 


5) 
H 


oo 


mn: we coee 
Peeseeoscoe 


Rie bewaice dees 


geen 


JOINT OF TWO MOLOINGS 8-8 


FASTENING OF GLASS ANDO VEHISOTE 


a 


compnccoce 


a 
4 
1] 
a 
r 
i] 
8 
t 
a 
) 
a 


YOINT OF THREE MOLDINGS B-B-A 


A.—MOLDINGS AND JOINTS FOR WOOD CASE FRAME. 


= a 7 


A. KQ., 


WS 


B.—SECTIONAL PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF TABLE CASE WITH WOOD FRAME, 


EXHIBITION CASES 205 


usual material for this board, but a dark finished wood 
strip may be substituted, and when marred it may be 
taken off and refinished. A leg base should have square 
legs, preferably tapered, joined by a 4-inch top rail and 
surmounted by a plain top. For best appearance the 
base would naturally be slightly larger in plan than the 
frame which it supports, but the ledge so formed would 
catch dust. Therefore frame and base should be 
flush. 

Directly to the top of the base are attached the 14-inch 
wood cleats shown in the sectional drawings. These 
support the vehisote deck and also provide securement for 
_ the frame. 

Friction glides should be provided for all bases. 


GLASS 


Plate glass is used in all factory-made cases and should 
be specified as “‘14 inch American polished plate, selected 
glazing quality, white and free from bubbles, scratches 
and other imperfections.’’ For all cases this glass should 
be used if possible, but under extreme pressure of economy 
double thick window glass is sometimes substituted. 
This material is fairly good and costs less than one third 
as much. The saving to be effected by this choice is 
substantial, since the cost of glass contributes in large 
measure to the price of a case. Window glass comes in 
six grades: three qualities, B, A and AA of each of two 
thicknesses, ST (single thick) and DT (double thick). 
The best grade is the AA DT. It is quite clear and free 
from blemishes, 7/, inch thick and is made in various sizes 
of three shapes, namely: up to 30 by 90 inches, up to 38 
by 86 inches and up to 60 by 70 inches. 

Frosted glass is used commonly for the tops of wall 
cases. 


206 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


SHELF SUPPORTS 


If shelves are to be used in wall cases, supports must be 
provided. A narrow metal pilaster strip in each corner 
with short adjustable brackets" is both neat and effective. 
If shelves sag under load, they may be held in the middle 
by adjustable vertical props inserted between shelves— 
the lowest shelf being so supported from the bottom of 
the case and each successive shelf supporting the one 
above it. 


VENTILATION 

Unless means are taken to prevent it, dust-laden air is 
drawn into a case through cracks whenever the tempera- 
ture drops, and before the air is wheezed out again under 
pressure of expansion, the dust settles inside the case. 
To filter incoming air, cases on the market are fitted with 
fibrous packing in the joints, but in a shop-made case 
it is simpler to provide one or two % inch “breathing 
holes” through the frame or base in an inconspicuous 
position but where they may be reached easily from the 
outside to be packed with cotton. Cylindrical metal 
ventilators are used for large special cases as described 
in the chapter on groups—page 236. 


LIGHTING 


If a case is to be individually lighted, the incandescent 
lamps should be above the case and outside it, and should 
be shielded. Lamps, if placed inside a case, must be 
housed in a ventilated compartment that can be opened 
from the outside. This of course involves special con- 
struction, and is not recommended. 


t A good device of this sort is manufactured by the Garden City Plat- 
ing and Manufacturing Company, Chicago. The standard, which is % 
inch wide, is No. K-73 and the bracket, No. A-73. 


PLATE 16 


SECTIONAL PLAN AND ELEVATIONS OF WALL CASE. FOR CENTER CASE 
THE VEHISOTE BACK IS REPLACED BY A SASH AS AT FRONT. 


load 


EXHIBITION CASES 207 


EXHIBITION SCREENS 


A screen is used in exhibition to provide a plain vertical 
surface. It may be glazed to protect flat objects such as 
laces or pressed plants, or it may be without glass and 
serve only as attachment and background for material. 
In a sense, a screen is a very specialized vertical case. 

A wall screen is one that is hung flat against the wall 
like a picture. It may be simply a framed rectangle of 
¥% inch composition board of any kind. 

A swinging screen is one that is hinged along one of its 
vertical edges. Such screens are intended to be installed 
in series along a wall or around a pillar or other support, 
so that they may be turned like the leaves of a book. 
Sizes much in use are 24 by 18 inches, 28 by 22 inches, 
34 by 30 inches and 42 by 26 inches. 

In order to make both sides of a swinging screen avail- 

able for exhibition, it is usual to adopt a double-faced 
frame construction—the single panel being insertable 
through a slot at the top, and bearing a finishing strip 
attached to its upper edge to close the slot. A less 
elegant double screen which is cheaper and also more 
practical in some respects may be made by fastening two 
thin single-faced wall screens back-to-back. The com- 
bined thickness may be reduced to 1 inch if both sides 
of a single 1% inch central panel are used, or to 114 
inches if two panels are provided. ‘The latter arrangement 
-is the better since each panel may be passepartouted 
to its glass. When the panels are in place, the passe- 
partout is concealed by the frames. 

The frames may be held together by a flat metal strip 
at the top and bottom, as shown in Plate 17. These 
strips provide means of hinging the screen to a wall or 
other support. The cleat shown in cross-section at A is 
to prevent accidental unhinging. On a wall, the screens 


208 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


of an entire row may be held by a single cleat, but around 
a pillar or other curved surface, individual fastenings 
must be contrived. A simple device is shown at B. 

A floor screen is one that stands alone on the floor— 
supported by two or three cross-feet. It is larger than 
either of the other types and may conveniently be the 
same size as the back of the standard wall case—that is, 
84 by 60 inches. 

Vehisote, the material of which panels for screens of 
any kind are usually made, is of pleasing color and texture 
for exhibition, but if a fabric background is desired, the 
material used may be the same as that chosen for case 
lining—page 217. 


REFERENCES— 


Drawings and measurements of furniture used by the museum. 
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1923, 40 pp. 

GILMAN, BENJAMIN Ives. Museum fatigue. Scientific 
Monthly, Jan. 1916, 2: 62-78. 

MapDIson, Haro_tp L. Museum exhibition cases. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1916, 10: 93-119. 

Rowe, Louis EARLE. The MacLean case. Proc. Amer. 
Ass’n. Museums 1916, 10: 89-92. 


PLATE 17 


SIMPLE MOUNTING FOR SWINGING SCREENS. 


XXXVI 
INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 


THE term installation, as employed in museum parlance 
to denote the process of placing objects on exhibition, 
comprehends everything from the decoration of an exhibi- 
tion room and the layout of its contents, to the smallest 
detail in the placement of any single object. Largely 
upon mode of installation depends the effectiveness of an 
exhibit. 

An installation may be made with either or both of 
two purposes in view: the first, to present objects pleas- 
ingly to the eye; the second, to utilize objects as means 
of conveying information. Since a work of art is created 
to make its own appeal most art exhibits are installed 
with the first purpose largely in view, as evidenced by 
tasteful arrangement, adjusted lighting and studied color 
scheme, as well as by absence of conspicuous labeling. 
On the other hand, an object of history or science is in- 
capable of telling more than a very small part of its story, 
and therefore most exhibits on these subjects are in- 
stalled with the second purpose chiefly in mind, as 
indicated by systematic arrangement, full labeling and 
use of diagrams, charts and other means of visualizing 
ideas. 

However, objects of art are interpretable, and also 
materials of history and science have some power of direct 
appeal in their own ways. ‘Therefore both purposes— 
to display and to explain—may enter somewhat into the 
installation of every exhibit, the one or the other out- 
weighing in such degree as the character of the objects 
and the purpose of the exhibit may demand. 


209 


210 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


For example, a number of mammal skulls may be in- 
stalled with every attention to instructive possibilities. 
One of the skulls may be sectioned and marked to indicate 
its various bones. The others may be arranged to show 
classification of the mammals which they represent, and 
each skull may be labeled to explain the peculiarities of 
structure which help to determine the zoological position 
of the animal. Tapes leading from the skulls may join 
in such a way as to form a family tree, disclosing that 
structures betray ancestry. A cord may connect each 
skull with a spot in a geologic chart which marks the era 
of family origin. Such devices are capable of giving 
information, but if the case be drab and poorly lighted, 
and the objects crudely arrayed on obtrusive shelves, the 
exhibit is likely to go uninspected. If, on the contrary, 
the case be well lighted and have a pleasing background, 
and if the objects be arranged tastefully and fastened to 
the case-back, then the exhibit is apt to catch the eye 
and lead the visitor to discover how marvelous bone 
structures are and to wonder what the similarities and 
the differences between the skulls may mean. The de- 
vices of exposition then have opportunity to do their 
work. Up to a point where it distracts attention, there- 
fore, the aesthetic element contributes to instruction. 

With history exhibits, also, instruction is principally — 
in view, but there is reason for relying upon attractiveness 
of display to assist them in conveying their messages. 

An exhibit of art presents the converse situation, inas- 
much as tastefulness of installation is of primary impor- 
tance, and teaching devices are employed with restraint 
lest they be distractive. For this reason schematic ar- 
rangement is not commonly employed, and labeling is 
carried out in a special way. This last subject is taken 
up in another chapter—page 224. 

Although these usual purposes ordinarily detarqaae the 


INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 211 


character of an exhibit of any kind, they do not invariably 
doso. ‘Thus, materials of science may be shown primarily 
as objects of natural beauty or impressiveness, and art 
objects may be displayed only to be expounded. It would 
be perfectly reasonable, for example, to install a number 
of paintings with diagrams, tapes and labels to bring out 
facts about technique, composition or art history, and 
perhaps to some extent to act as guides to art apprecia- 
tion. In short, the purpose of an exhibit, quite as much 
as the character of the material of which it is composed, 
dictates the type of installation. 

A better understanding of the full range of possibilities 
in installation would be helpful to every museum worker. 
This is the idea suggested by the often quoted plea for 
‘“more science in art museums and more art in science 
museums.’ ‘This statement, by the way, is more expres- 
sive than exact—the real need being for more attractive 
installation of science exhibits and more instructive instal- 
lation of ari exhibits. 


ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 


The principles of design should be observed in any 
attempt either to please the eye or to convey information 
by means of an exhibit. These principles—these laws 
of order—are based upon observation of human responses 
to various kinds of arrangement. ‘The responses may be 
in the nature of approval or disapproval, or they may be 
motor reactions such as movement of the eye along paths 
in a design, or fixation of gaze upon a point. ‘There 
are many unexplored possibilities of applying the prin- 
ciples of design to museum work, but even the most 
obvious applications are so commonly ignored that the 
matter need not be looked upon as entirely abstruse. 

The three major qualities of a good design are harmony, 


212 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


balance and rhythm. Harmony is secured in any unit of 
exhibition space, whether it be a case or a room, by ad- 
justment of parts to the whole. ‘There should be unity 
of idea, form and color. This does not call for dull 
monotony; there may be contrast and variety if points 
of contrast are coincident with points of interest and 
variety is employed to separate the natural divisions of 
an exhibit rather than to chop it up illogically. There- 
fore harmony goes hand-in-hand with dominance and its 
antithesis, subordination, by means of which judgments 
as to relative values may be expressed. 

Balance depends upon more than symmetry of arrange- 
ment; it is secured only when the placing of objects com- 
posing a group is judged with reference to individual 
importance, size, color and any other characters which 
give “‘weight.”” An object of greater weight must be 
nearer to a center or axis than one of lesser weight if the 
two are to balance. For the sake of harmony, a center 
of balance may be coincident with a center of interest— 
the latter being determined often by the location of a 
point of brightness or contrast. ‘The well-known appeal 
of odd numbers of objects in a series is explained in part 
by the readiness with which a definite and obvious center 
may be established among them. | 

Rhythm is the quality of life in a design; it is movement 
and throb. Ina design of similar units rhythm is secured 
by even spacing, suggesting periodicity. If units of two 
or three kinds are involved, uniform alternation gives 
the same result, and if all the units of a series are unlike, 
progressive arrangement by size or some other character- 
istic gives sweep to the whole. Rhythm is a function of 
the line or row. ‘The vitality of rhythm is shown by the 
tendency of the eye to travel along a rhythmic line, and 
this may be utilized to lead an observer through all the 
details of a design. The circle and the triangle around 


eer 


PLATTERS 


Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 
AN EXHIBIT INSTALLED PRIMARILY FOR PLEASING EFFECT. 


INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 213 


a focus of interest are effective compositions because the 
eye is carried around to its starting point and scrutiny 
tends to be sustained. However, lines or rows radiating 
from a center of interest may be effective if the center 
is attractive enough to bring the eye back from the end 
of one line to the beginning of another. This return of 
scrutiny to the center is also assisted in a radiate com- 
position by the facts that converging lines lead the eye 
in the direction of convergence, and crossing lines arrest 
the eye at the point of intersection. The temptation to 
make obvious patterns should be overcome. Wheels, 
crosses, outlines of objects and other ornate effusions are 
distracting. Parallel lines are bad because they merely 
cut up an area. This is one important objection to 
shelves in exhibition cases and especially to continuous 
lines of shelves in adjacent cases. 

To state these principles in general terms is perhaps to 
make their application seem involved and detached from 
ordinary experience. In fact, however, the powers of 
various arrangements is a matter of common observation. 
For a fuller discussion of the subject reference is made 
to Chapter 3 of Ernest A. Batchelder’s Design in Theory 
and Practice. 

Color as well as form is a factor in design, and therefore 
understanding of the relations between colors is essential 
to the securing of harmony, balance and rhythm. The 
best brief exposition of color is believed to be Chapter 
4 of Charles De Garmo and Leon Loyal Winslow’s 
Essentials of Design. 


SETTINGS FOR EXHIBITS 


The preparation of a room for exhibition purposes is 
primarily a matter of its decoration and equipment in 
accordance with general requirements. ‘This is taken up 
in the chapter on interior and equipment—page 317. In 


214. MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


addition there are possibilities of adapting each room to 
its contents; the importance of making such individual 
settings is overlooked in many instances. ‘The simplest 
kind of setting is provided by appropriate wall color, 
suggestive ornament and attuned light. This is about 
as far as one can go unless a room contains only closely 
related material, in which case the opportunities are 
many.* 


FLOOR LAYOUT 


In a museum with a number of rooms, the first consider- 
ation in layout is that of the size of room in relation to 
the bulk of objects which it is to contain. Sculpture 
must have space; paintings need more room than prints; 
lace requires an intimate environment. Similar diverse 
demands are made by the materials of history and science. 
In a small museum this problem ordinarily resolves itself 
into one of space apportionment within a room, since few 
small museums have rooms in variety. 3 

In making the first outline of an exhibit, the subject- 
matter should be separated into its main divisions, and 
each branch assigned to an alcove, a corner, a wall space 
or a floor area according to its importance and the nature 
and quantity of material available. Relationships be- 
tween subjects should be recognized in order that the 
visitor may find a proper sequence of interests as he pro- 
ceeds around a room and from one room to another— 
keeping always to the right. If practicable the layout 
should be such that a person may see all of the exhibits 
by following an obvious route which does not double 
back or cross upon itself. The advantages of this pro- 
vision are felt most when visitors attend in numbers. 


t Ways in which problems of setting may be solved at very small cost 
are suggested by: Blair, Dorothy. A suggestive setting. Museum Work, 
March-April 1924, 6:195 and MacLean, J. Arthur. Creating atmosphere 
in a gallery. Museum Work, July-Aug. 1923, 6: 59-60. 


INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 215 


Fixed partitions, as lines of demarcation between the 
branches of an exhibit, are rarely necessary. If alcoves 
are required they may be formed by screens or wall 
cases back-to-back, set off from the wall at intervals. 
The flexibility preserved in this way is advantageous. 
Every exhibit should be developed with an eye to the 
possibility of making successive shifts as more space is 
required. 

Table cases, center cases or large masses in the middle 
of a room may serve to define a route around them, but 
no floor should be filled with high cases. Tightly packed 
rooms are forbidding and difficult to police. Open spaces 
and vistas are cheerful and inviting. It is especially de- 
sirable to have an attractive exhibit at the end of every 
vista, such for example as that afforded by the length 
of a room or a corridor. Such features please the eye 
at a distance and may attract visitors to less striking but 
equally important exhibits which occupy lateral positions. 


PLACEMENT OF CASES 


Exhibition cases should not be built-in or attached 
permanently to the floor. However final a layout may 
seem, time invariably brings occasion to modify it. 

Arrangement of cases and screens is governed by three 
considerations: light, reflections and general appearance. 
The first two present interrelated problems which may 
be difficult to solve except by trial. Inflexible rules can- 
not and should not be laid down for placement, but in 
general, assuming light from high windows at both sides 
as recommended in the chapter on buildings—page 309 
—units give good effect if placed as follows: 


WALL CasEs—crosswise of the room to avoid reflections 
and near either side-wall to avoid obstructing the center 
of the floor. If not thrown into shadow, they may be 


216 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


edged against either side-wall. A row of wall cases 
placed in this position by twos—back to back—may 
be used to form shallow alcoves. 


CENTER CasES—crosswise of the room and at any dis- 
tance from the wall which permits inspection from all 
four sides. 


TABLE CASES—crosswise and preferably near the long 
axis of the room to avoid reflections. 


FLOOR SCREENS—standing off from side-walls to form 
alcoves, or lengthwise of the room on its long axis. 


PLACEMENT OF OBJECTS 


Unless objects are placed so that one may see them 
without stooping, craning or contorting, visitors suffer 
from so-called museum fatigue. ‘The design of cases is 
an important factor. Wall cases with low bases and high 
tops, and table cases with high or wide decks are un- 
desirable. 

But even in the most approved cases, installations are 
likely to be trying to eyes and muscles unless precautions 
are taken to place objects correctly. The visitor is sup- 
posed to be standing when he observes closely ; the museum 
which permits him to sit down—except to recover, or 
perhaps to view large objects at a distance—has yet to 
make its appearance. The eye-height of the average 
adult is 60 inches. For ordinary inspection the eye 
should not be more than 18 inches from its object. This 
defines a zone between the 42-inch and the 78-inch levels 
for vertical installation of small objects. But this zone 
is too high for children, among whom there is wide range 
of stature. Perhaps the best plan is to install small 
objects and labels between the 40 inch and the 60 inch 
levels. At higher or lower levels large objects may be 
viewed with comfort. 


INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 207 


INSTALLATION IN CASES 


CASE LINING 


The opaque decks and backs of cases against which 
objects are viewed are usually covered with fabric. This 
improves appearances and may also provide a surface 
which is very little damaged by screws, nails and pins. 
For the latter purpose a coarse cloth is best. Burlap 
wall coverings and monk’s cloth are much in use, but 
cheaper materials such as cotton crash, unbleached mus- 
lin and even cheese cloth are also employed. Burlap 
is too coarse as a background for small objects. 

For general purposes a natural straw color or gray is 
preferred, but dull uniformity throughout a museum is 
to be avoided. Case lining of the same color as the wall 
covering of an exhikition room is sometimes used, but 
in any event it should be subdued in tone and should not 
clash with surroundings. A coat of dark green or cherry 
stain on case back or deck, under the lining, improves the 
color—especially with thin material such as cheese cloth. 

For special purposes velvet lining is sometimes em- 
ployed. Lace, for instance, shows very well against this 
material, but a dead black background commonly made 
by painting the wood of the case is not pleasing. Case 
lining is usually fastened with gimp tacks. 


FALSE BACKS AND BOTTOMS 


The depth of a wall case may be decreased by the use 
of a false back, and that of a table case, by a false bottom. 
These are shallow trays with 14-inch vehisote bottoms 
and covering of case lining fabric. They are not neces- 
sary, but they may serve either of two purposes: to bring 
objects closer to the eye or to facilitate changing of the 
contents of a case. One museum makes temporary ex- 
hibits by covering permanent installations with false 


218 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


backs upon which the new material has been installed. 

Center cases are quite often equipped with pyramidal 
false bottoms which provide a series of steps upon which 
small objects may be placed. This is not recommended. 
The arrangement is wasteful of space and subversive of 
the proper use of center cases, which is to accommodate 
large objects. 


SHELVES 

Although shelves are sometimes used in center cases, 
the shelf problem is essentially one of the wall case. The 
present tendency is to do away entirely with shelves of 
any kind and to attach objects directly to the vertical 
surface, but if shelves are to be used they should be rather 
narrow and those at the top should be narrower than those 
at the bottom. Ordinarily the greatest height at which 
a shelf should be placed is five feet. 

There is difference of opinion as to the relative merits 
of wood and glass shelves. Wood, which is used in 7% 
inch thickness, is somewhat bulky in appearance and 
throws shadows, whereas glass, being only 14 inch thick 
and transparent, does not have these disadvantages. On 
the other hand, if covered with case lining material, wood 
provides a pleasing background for objects, whereas glass 
offers some distraction by permitting one to see through 
it. Furthermore, glass breaks easily, may require sup- 
port at the middle and does not offer enough friction to 
prevent objects from jarring out of place. On the whole, 
therefore, wooden shelves are favored. If the forward 
edge of each shelf is beveled on the under-side the appear- 
ance is improved. 


VERTICAL INSTALLATION WITHOUT SHELVES 


A vast majority of objects shown in cases are capable 
of being attached directly to a vertical case back. In- 


PLATE 19 


Courtesy of Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois. 
AN EXHIBIT INSTALLED PRIMARILY TO CONVEY INFORMATION. 


INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 219 


stallation in this fashion requires a little ingenuity, but 
it has advantages which far outweigh any difficulties of 
technique. Against the pleasing background of case 
lining, in full view and arranged in tasteful design, objects 
appear at their best when so installed. 

Wire, brads, screws, screw-eyes or hooks ordinarily 
suffice to attach objects, but the Shrosbree hanger’ is 
very useful. This consists of a flat metal strip bent into 
an L, one leg of which is perforated for attachment to 
an object and the other of which slips into a small flat 
socket screwed to the case. ‘These hangers are made by 
the Milwaukee Public Museum which writes: ‘‘We have 
on hand a supply of the Shrosbree specimen hangers in 
four sizes. Inasmuch as we have the sets of dies, from 
which they are stamped, it is very likely that when our 
present supply is exhausted we shall have more made. 
We have been selling them to institutions at prices to 
cover the cost of stamping and handling. The present 
prices are as follows: 


No. I size (small) $1.75 per 100 sets 
Baws DOD a rect eval Mons 
a 6 2.50 ce 6e 6c 
4 66 (large) 3.75 é¢ 6c 6é 


To purchasers who have not used them before, we send 
a blue-print giving instructions for use.”’ 

Wax-and-balsam? is an exceedingly useful composition 
for attaching labels to objects or to case backs, and for 
holding light objects in place. It is made by adding 1 
teaspoonful of Canada balsam to 1 ounce of melted bee’s 
wax. It should be cast into little lumps or a chunk from 

Ward, Henry L. The Shrosbree specimen hanger. Proc. Amer. 
Ass’n. Museums, 1910, 4: 13-16. 

2Clowes, Herbert. Tackless labeling for exhibition purposes. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1915, 9: III-113. 


220 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


which radish-sized lumps may be cut. The wax must 
be of the best quality free from commercial adulterants 
such as paraffin, tallow, stearin or other introduced oils 
or fats, and care must be taken to keep it clean. A tiny 
piece of this composition, warmed by working between 
the fingers for a moment and pressed between any two 
surfaces, causes them to adhere. It holds indefinitely 
but also releases easily without leaving a mark or grease 
spot. 

Bases for individual objects, whether they be on shelves 
or attached to a vertical surface, are not much used except 
for certain science specimens which require underpinning. 
For such objects naturalistic bases have supplanted the 
polished wood supports which were once so common. A 
bird may be perched on a twig or branch; a mammal on 
a clod of sanded plaster or maché over wire-mesh. Some 
invertebrate animals may be mounted to advantage on 
similar bases, or on leaves or bits of bark. 

Pinned insects may be set on white slabs made by cut- 
ting paper-covered compressed cork* into rectangles, 
which are then edged with buff or brown passepartout. 
Plants and many other objects may be shown on rec- 
tangles of cardboard or composition board. 

Fossils, rocks and minerals are usually laid on the bot- 
toms of table cases, but a new method of mounting them 
for vertical installation has recently come into use. A 
wire or wire nail, cemented to the object,” is passed 
through a hole in a small slab of board and clinched. 
The slab may be installed vertically ; the common practice 
of arranging such mounts in long rows supported by metal 
strips is to be discouraged. 


1 Compressed cork is sold by the Armstrong Cork Company, 50 Church 
Street, New York City. 

2Reeds, Chester A. Mounting geological specimens with sélphur. 
Museum Work, Nov. 1920, 3: 62-65. 


INSTALLATION OF EXHIBITS 221 


If lines are desired to divide an exhibition surface into 
areas or to connect objects, buff curtain cord may be 
used. ‘The ends of each piece should be knotted tightly 
and may be held by a buff celluloid-headed thumb tack. 


HORIZONTAL INSTALLATION 


Many of the devices employed in vertical installation 
are useful for table cases also, but usually horizontal in- 
stallation is of the simplest, objects being laid directly 
on the fabric-lined deck of the case. The use of card- 
board trays is almost obsolete. 


INSTALLATION WITHOUT CASES 


If an object, which ordinarily would be shown in a 
case, is replaceable, it may be cheaper to replace it from 
time to time than to carry the investment in a case to 
guard it. Many objects must be protected from dust, 
handling and theft, but many others such as are usually 
encased do not need to be so guarded. ‘The interests of 
posterity demand a far less rigorous and strait-laced 
policy than some museums have adopted in their exhibi- 
tion rooms. Furthermore, the interests of effective ex- 
hibition suffer from the over-use of glass. Tactile educa- 
tion is quite as important as visual education. ‘The tray- 
topped table is more useful than the exhibition case for 
many objects—and it is far less expensive. If there is 
danger of theft or misplacement, objects may be wired 
fast. | 


WALL INSTALLATION 


Objects of many kinds besides pictures may be shown 
directly against the wall. With this type of installation 
the temptation to crowd is quite as strong as with any 
other, and it is just as much to be condemned. More 


222 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


than a single line of objects, unless they be small ones, 
detracts from the effectiveness of an exhibit. For small 


material wall screens are useful and they are especially — 


convenient because of the ease with which they may be 
rearranged or replaced by others with new installations. 

Pictures may be hung, each with two parallel wires, 
from a molding—see page 318—or supported by two 
tenter hooks or Moore hangers driven into the wall 
behind the frame. If the wall surface permits, the latter 
method would seem to be preferable, although there are 
advocates of wires on the ground that .a mass should have 
a visible support. If hangings of large pictures are to 
be changed often, wires are better because, otherwise, in 
course of time the wall is scarred by the heavy hooks or 
nails. | 

Prints may be installed against a wall or screen, each 
one covered by a rectangle of glass which is supported 
by two screw hooks below and one at each side, above 
center. 


REFERENCES— 


Many short articles such as those cited in footnotes of this 
chapter are to be found in the PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN 
ASSOCIATION OF Museums and Museum Work. A complete 
index to these two serials has been issued as PUBLICATIONS 
oF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF MusEums. New Series, 
No. 2, 1927. THE MusEUMS JOURNAL, published by the 
Museums Association of Great Britain, is also a fruitful source 
of information. 


a ee ee ee ee re -— oe 


XXXVII 


LABELING 

MusEvum labels are designed to convey information, 
and as devices for instruction they are essential to any 
exhibit which is educational in purpose. It might be 
anticipated, therefore, that labeling of history and science 
exhibits would be admittedly important and relatively 
unquestioned as to character, whereas labeling of art 
exhibits would be under some discussion. And so it is. 
The difficulty with art arises from three facts: first, that 
many people take_ only an intellectual interest in art 
exhibits even though « the sole purpose of installation may 
be to afford. aesthetic pleasure, second, that informative 


labeling does not assist.in the appreciation of an exhibit 


and third, “that labels are distracting for those who desire 
to enjoy ‘the aesthetic qualities of a work. 

~The first point _ is well brought out by a writer who 
indicates his interest in knowing, apart from enjoying. 
He tetts Of a visit to a museum with a friend: ‘This art 
museum contained a collection of pottery said to be the 
fargest and finest of its kind in existence, and as fairly 
intelligent visitors we wished to know something about 
it. What did we learn? Nothing. Here and there was 
a label bearing a date; here and there one bearing a name, 
presumably that of some locality, although the names 
were all strange, and in the absence of a map they might 
possibly have been the names of the makers. As to the 
objects of the collection, whether the jars were made 
for use, for ornament, or for sale; what were the finest or 
rarest glazes; wherein the work of one maker differed 
from that of another—as to this we learned absolutely 

223 


Py ree: Rese 


‘] 5 
Koper bonmte pek- 


224 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


nothing.’”’ Such inquisitive interest as this is universal 
and there is no justification for ignoring it. 

The other two points which have been stated bear upon 
the worse-than-uselessness of the informative label to the 
visitor who is bent on appreciation. To devise a way of 
reconciling these difficulties is the problem of labeling 
art exhibits. The best solution seems to be that of using 
inconspicuous labels, each bearing only a few words, ‘and 
of gathering together the real label texts. into a '$0- so-called 
gallery leaflet. The leaflet, ‘which is nothing ‘but a con- 


‘cession to appearance, is not used in connection with art 


installations which are instructive in purpose or with 
history or science exhibits. 


THE TAG 


The unobtrusive label used for an art exhibit may be 
designated as a tag, since it is not strictly a museum label. 
Usually it gives the artist’s name, the date, school, name 
of donor and perhaps other information to assist in identi- 
fying the object. It may bear a number, but numbers 
alone are not sufficient in a permanent exhibit. 

The format of a tag is determined largely by its loca- 
tion. It should tone in with its background. Thus, gilt 
tags on gilt frames or buff ones on a burlap-covered wall 
are appropriate. 


THE LEAFLET 


There is difference of opinion as to what may properly 
be stated in a leaflet. Some maintain that information 
about the artist and historic facts about his work are all 
that can be given. Others believe that there is reason 
as well as opportunity to say in addition something about 
artistic qualities, in the hope of opening the visitor’s 
eyes and thus leading the way to appreciation. That 


LABELING 225 


art appreciation can be induced by word of mouth is 
admitted; why the same end should not be attempted 
in writing is hard to understand, unless the difficulty 
lies in unwillingness of the museum worker to make 
written statements on subjects which are open to a great 
deal of discussion. In any event, the text should be 
arranged so that it bears the closest possible relation to 
the exhibits. A rambling account or one that touches 
only here and there upon the exhibits is of little use. 
_ A bald list articulating with objects by numbers is equally 

bad. A combination of general statement with descrip- 
tive listing is probably most satisfactory. 

The format of the leaflet is a matter of taste. If it is 
printed, the standards suggested in the chapter on publi- 
cations—page 271—may be followed. However, many 
leaflets are only mimeographed. 

Being labels for the public, leaflets should be obtainable 
for use without charge. In fact, a number of leaflets 
should be available for simultaneous reading. These 
should not be confused with the printed guides which 
large museums offer for sale. Most of the latter are 
souvenir booklets or general texts and are not intended 
to take the place of labels. 


THE LABEL 


The museum label is a unique affair designed to serve 
a very definite purpose. It is a silent instructor—always 
ready to draw attention to an exhibit and to make com- 
ments at the exact moment when they are desired. 
There is no stereotyped formula for labels, but, as a 
matter of fact, efforts at label-writing have discovered 
very few methods of presentation, and most of these are 
obviously bad. There remains a form of label which 
may be looked upon as typical. It consists of three 
parts: ‘text, preceded by a heading and followed by notes. 


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226 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


TEXT 


The text gives instruction by two stages. First, it 
satisfies. curiosity by answering inevitable . questions, and 
second, - it offers general information. In other words 
the ‘text proceeds from the specific to the “general, “This 
order “of presentation is based upon the fundamental 
museum principle that observation comes first and ex- 
planation afterward. © ~The visitor sees an an object, is is moved 
to inspect it, asks himself a ‘commonplace qu question ‘about 
it, consults the label, gets his answer and becomes further 
‘interested, reads the label to a finish and draws a an “idea 
‘from it, looks at neighboring objects to round out the 
idea, arrives at an understanding of what. the exhibit; ds 
for and ends with a desire to get a book on the subject. 
"The “converse procedure would be to ‘begin with labels 
—reading them in sequence and, after finishing each one, 
looking at the object which illustrates it. These would 
be bookish tactics. If they were sound for museums, 
labels would have to begin with general statements, pro- 
ceed to explanatory detail and finish with references to 
objects on exhibition. In short, they would be deductive. 
But museums invariably employ the inductive method 
by virtue of the fact that their teaching is. ‘based u 1 upon 
observation. "Therefore, labels are written after the i in- 
ductive manner—first giving the facts and. then drawing 
the conclusions. 

The introductory paragraphs of text, which are de- 
signed to answer questions, should tell what the object 
is, where it comes from and briefly what it does or is used 
for. The obvious is not stated; this would discourage 
observation. If possible, familiar words and non-technical 
names are used, but many times this cannot be done, 
as in the case of an animal or plant which has no common 
name. In any event, technical names may be ‘added 
parenthetically for the benefit of those who want them. 


LABELING 227 


The paragraphs which follow the introductory state- 
ments should, in effect, explain why the object is dis- 
played. There should always be such a reason. An 
exhibit without a purpose cannot be labeled except in 
detailed statements identifying objects. Many installa- 
tions are poorly labeled because they are without purpose 
and therefore cannot be labeled. 

If the concluding sentences of a label are written with 
a view to persuading the visitor to do something about 
‘what" he has learned, the label attains to greatest useful- 
ness. The simplest expedient i is to allude to other parts 
of the exhibit so that inspection will be extended. If the 
subject is’ interestingly presented, reference to a book 
which is to be found at a nearby reading table may be 
effective. In some instances self expression beyond the 
moment may be induced. For example, the suggestion | 
may be made to the visitor that he watch in every-day 


life for ; something that. relates to the exhibit, or that he | 


imitate some process in order to understand it. 

Every label should read smoothly. Short sentences 
are good, but the diction ought not to be jerky. To em- 
ploy a simple literary style is better than to hitch unre- 
lated sentences together as they might appear in a scrap 


book. 


HEADING 
Ordinarily the heading of a label is the name of the 


object. or group of objects. It summarizes the opening 
sentence, answering the question: What isi? 

There is another kind of heading which is not common 
but which deserves consideration. It takes the form of 
a sentence stating some interesting fact in anticipation 
of the text. Its purpose is to catch the eye of the visitor 
in the hope of arousing his interest and causing him to 
observe the exhibit. Then the usual process ensues: 


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228 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


questions are suggested and to find answers the visitor 
reads the first part of the label. If it is well written, he 
is then lured into reading further. It is evident therefore 
that the statement-heading is not at all comparable to the 
name-heading. 


NOTES 
Notes, which appear in slants type at the bottom of 


a label, are occasional” necessary evils. ~ They credit the 
donor of an object or name the preparator of an important 


model or group. 


INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE LABELS 


some labels are not complete in themselves, but con- 
tribute to the labeling of an exhibit as a whole. For 
example, related objects may each be labeled with its 
name only—the texts being brought together into one 
collective label. This is merely equivalent to splitting 
the heading into several coordinate headings on separate 
small cards. 

In turn, several collective labels may come under a 
still more general label applying to an entire case or an 
alcove, and finally an entire room may have one general 
label. It is interesting to note that according to the 
observe-first-read-afterward logic, the more general labels 
are equivalent to the closing portions, or conclusions, of 
less general ones and therefore are supposed to be read 
later. To be sure, a person approaching an exhibit is 
likely to see the most general label first, but t this i is only 
a preliminary view. The real inquiry _begins with _in- 
Spection of objects, continues with Teading of individual 
and then collective labels, and ends with h a final look at 


the general label. Knowledge o of this “sequence is helpful 


in writing labels. 


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LABELING 229 


Incidentally, a general label may be brief and take the 
form of the name heading on an individual label, but this 
is a Similarity in appearance only. If it bears no more 
than the words The Earth’s Crust or the question What 
is the Earth’s Crust? it implies a statement—a conclusion 
from an entire exhibit. The short form is probably 
more useful than a full statement, because, while its © 
purpose is to generalize from individual labels, the general 
label also acts as a curiosity-awakener for the visitor who 
might pass by if his interest were not challenged by large 
type and few words. 


FORMAT OF LABELS 


The size of a museum label is determined by the size 
and importance of the object or case to which it relates 
as well as the length of the text and the generality of 
the subject it treats. It is desirable to adopt a series of 
standard formats so that all labels of the same size and 
degree of importance may be of similar appearance. 

The usual label material is cardboard, which, according 
to the best printing standards, should be white, but which 
is usually gray or buff to harmonize better with case 
lining and to prevent fading. If a dark stock is desired 
for reasons of appearance, the danger of illegibility should 
be kept in mind. A card that takes ink well should 
always be chosen. Royal Worcester is a good buff board 
that is gaining in popularity and Falcon Photo-Mount 
Tea Board is a satisfactory brownish gray material. 
Colored stocks are not favored. 

Museums may have difficulty in getting label board, 
even in quantity from wholesale dealers. This is due to 
reluctance to sell direct to the consumer—a point of 
ethics in the trade which may be met by ordering through 
a retail stationer. 


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230 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


The type in which lables are set should be uniform 
throughout a museum, and should be chosen with care. 
De Vinne is much used. Caslon is dignified but for small 
labels it is somewhat too light in face. Gothic is better. 
For most labels 14 point is about right, but for general 


labels a larger type is desirable. Black ink should 1 be 


used always. 


Hand-written and typewritten labels are preferable to 
none, but printed labels are used by most museums. 
A small hand press and one or two fonts of type may be 
purchased for less than $100 and will serve admirably. 
Tt is difficult, if not impossible, to get proper labels made 
by a trade printer; by printing at the museum the in- 
evitable small problems may be solved as they arise. 

It is customary to print four copies of each label: one 
on board for immediate use, two on board for reserve and 
one on white paper for pasting in a record book. 


INSTALLATION OF LABELS 


since labels are made to be read, it is important to 
install them where they can be seen—not in ‘shadow, be- 


‘hind objects or flat on shelves above the eye. With the 


aid of wax-and-balsam composition described in the last 
chapter—page 219—small labels may be attached to 
objects, case backs or shelves as desired. Various patent 
clips for standing labels on edge are not satisfactory. 
The simplest device is a little block of wood fastened to 
the back of the label with the composition. 

Large labels are usually edged with buff or brown passe- 
partout against a backing of compo-board. This pro- 
vides for attaching them by Shrosbree hangers to the 
inside of a case at any desired angle. Labels outside 
cases are covered with glass. If framed, they should 
first be passepartouted with the glass. 


<i gO, Leg ee aD 


LABELING 231 


Labels are often combined with diagrams or maps. 
Diagrams are drawn beside the text after printing but 
a map outline may be printed from a zinc plate and color- 
ing or other detail added by hand. 


REFERENCES— 


BRYANT, WiLLtiam L. Experiments with museum labels. 
Museum Work, Nov.—Dec. 1923, 6: 115-120. 

GILMAN, BENJAMIN IvEs. The problem of the label. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1911, 5: 15-25. 

KENT, HENRY W. Museum labels. Museum Work, July- 
Aug. 1923, 6:55-58. 

Lucas, FREDERIC A. Museum labels and labeling. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, I9II, 5: 9I—IOI. 

Warp, HENRY L. ‘The labeling in museums. Proc. Amer. 
Ass’n. of Museums, 1917, 1: 42-51. 


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XXXVIII 
MUSEUM GROUPS 


A GROUP is an installation of related objects or models 
with realistic setting. In most highly developed form, 
it is a sort of stage-effect enclosed in a specially lighted 
case and viewed through a window. The scene may be 
an interior or an outdoor one, and it may be shown in 
a foot cube or a space as large asa room. This type of 
exhibit was evolved partly in reaction to the once universal 
method of installing museum objects in close formation 
on shelves. The group represented an effort to make 
museums interesting to lay-visitors by resort to dramatiza- 
tion, and doubtless it offers the most successful way of 
conveying information about the manner of life of man 
or beast. As an object of interest and beauty a group 
is attractive, and as a vivid portrayal it is profoundly 
impressive. 

Subjects of science or history are commonly presented 
in this way. Groups of mounted birds or mammals posed 
among wax plants and other artificial accessories before 
scenic backgrounds are to be found in most science 
museums. The size of such groups is usually determined 
by the size of the animals which are featured—most 
groups containing only three or four individuals. History 
or ethnology groups with life-sized human figures are 
also common, but the difficulty and cost of constructing 
large groups of this kind has led to the development of | 
miniatures, 

Miniature groups, with small wax figures on a scale 
of % inch or 1 inch to the foot, are especially useful to 
small museums, and there is reason to believe that in 

232 


PLATE 20 


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Courtesy of American Red Cross Museum. 
SMALL GROUP WITH INDIVIDUAL FLOOR CASE. 


MUSEUM GROUPS 233 


the future they will be much more widely used. Although 
the only subjects which have been treated extensively in 
such groups are those requiring human figures, doubtless 
the time will come when miniature mammal groups will 
find favor; the larger mammals lend themselves admirably 
to representation. Naturally, small models do not have 
as much force as mounted skins. The majesty of the » 
elk can be shown only by a huge group, if in truth it can 
be shown at all, but many facts about the habits of the 
elk can be told by a well-designed miniature. Such a 
little group is worthy as an exhibit, and it may represent 
a better investment of funds—all things considered— 
than an ambitious venture in taxidermy. 

Various degrees of simplification are practiced in the 
making of groups, whether large or small. The back- 
ground may be only a neutral tinted screen; accessories 
in the foreground may be few and simple; there may be 
no artificial light. Many groups are installed in ordinary 
center cases and are viewed from three or all four sides. 
Some groups have no cases. If accessories are simple 
and strong and if the animal to be shown is common and 
can withstand some dusting and fingering, such an open 
group is good economy. Furthermore, absence of glass 
is always commendable for its influence upon the visitor. 


SMALL GROUP CONSTRUCTION 


Every group should be a good picture as well as a 
truthful representation. For a clear recital of principles 
of composition a useful book is Henry R. Poore’s Pictorial 
Composition. In order to arrive at pleasing results a 
preparator should make color sketches and also, perhaps, 
a clay sketch-model of his group before starting on the 
final work. If such preliminary studies are discussed 
with several people from the standpoints of accuracy 
and artistic qualities, serious blunders may be avoided. 


234 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


The following general suggestions apply to small groups 
—whether on full scale or in miniature. 


FOREGROUND 


The foreground of a group is the part made in three 
dimensions; in a sense it is the group itself, since other 
elements exist only for the purpose of setting it off. 
Usually the foreground is made on a separate base de- 
signed to rest on the floor of the case and to fit snugly 
all around. If it is held in place only by a concealed 
cleat at each side, it may be taken out after removing 
the front of the case. In groups that have the foreground 
joined visibly to the background, the latter must also be 
supported on the base. 

The transition from the solids of the foreground to the 
plane of the background is not necessarily difficult to 
make even in landscape groups. The method just al- 
luded to is the one which is least successful. It requires 
that the foreground be curved up at the rear and merged 
into the background. Since a junction of this kind has 
the effect of bending the landscape into an obtuse angle, 
it is desirable to choose a scene which shows a depression 
or gully crossing it in the middle distance so that the 
illusion may be lost in a natural feature of the landscape. 
If both foreground and background represent a stretch 
of uninterrupted plane, the horizontal should be joined 
to the vertical by a very wide curve. 

A simple and effective way of relating the foreground 
to the background is by leaving a gap between them— 
the background simply extending down out of sight. An 
effect of distance is gained by this arrangement, which is 
particularly suitable for hill-top, tree-top or cliff scenes, 
but which may be employed even for level ground if a 
rock, log or other obstruction is introduced at the rear 
of the foreground. 


KERR 
the Shen od 


Courtesy of The American Museum of Natural History. 


A.—SMALL GROUP WITH PORTABLE CASE FOR EXHIBITION OR LENDING. 


Courtesy of Natural History Museum, San Diego. 
B.—GROUPS INSTALLED IN SERIES. 


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MUSEUM GROUPS 235 


A foreground which is actually horizontal appears al- 
most invariably to slope away, so that to seem level it 
must really slant upward towards the background. The 
exact grade required in any particular group can be de- 
termined only by trial, but a rise of one in ten is usually 
about right. Even a celluloid sheet used to represent 
the surface of water should be inclined. If the setting is 
a room, the floor should be tilted and the walls should 
slant inward towards the rear. Another aid to fore- 
shortening is to use at the front accessories and figures 
that are slightly larger than those at the back. 

Accessories, or the objects in the foreground other than 
the figures, may be made of wax, celluloid, plaster, papier 
maché, paper, cardboard, wood or other material. They 
are usually overdone and much time and money is wasted 
in the process. A group, like a picture, should suggest; 
detail may defeat its purpose. 

Foliage is especially difficult to make. For full-scale 
groups, commercially-made artificial * foliage may be 
used in many instances. It is very much cheaper than 
the product of the museum preparator and some of it 
is better also. If desired, the leaves may be improved 
by retouching with color. For miniature foliage various 
weeds dried and colored are excellent. 


BACKGROUND 

The background of a group may be either transparent 
or opaque; that is, it may be a photographic transparency 
or a photographic or painted picture. For most purposes 
an opaque picture is the better, since it does not neces- 
sarily require special lighting. Enlarged colored photo- 
graphs give excellent results if detail is required to be 


t Foliage of common trees and many wild flowers may be purchased 
from Frank Netschert Company, 61 Barclay Street, or the Decorative 
Plant Company, 228 Fifth Avenue, both of New York City. 


236 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


shown, but for most purposes the painted background, 
which is adaptable under a wider range of treatment, is 
believed to be better. 

Depending upon the character of a group, the back- 
ground may be either a flat screen, a cylindrical surface 
covering the sides as well as the back, or a somewhat cup- 
Shaped surface covering the top also. Best results may 
be secured in most cases by using a cylindrical background 
which extends well up out of sight of the observer. ‘This 
is for open-air scenes, of course. An excellent material 
is congoleum cork carpet or similar floor covering, which 
does not wrinkle like canvas, requires no stretching, has 
good texture and may be painted flat and later bent into 
any required curve. 


CASE 


A small group may be installed in a carrying-case which, 
to be exhibited, needs only to be set on a bracket or table, 
or it may be housed in a relatively large cabinet which 
rests on the floor. Sometimes several groups are encased 
side by side. 

Since the average eye-height of the adult visitor is 60 
inches, the top of the window through which a group is 
seen should not be lower than this. Children may be 
accommodated by placing a low box or step in front of 
each group. 

It is essential that a group be protected from dust. 
This may be accomplished by the double expedient of 
providing a dust-tight case and making provision for it 
to ‘‘breathe” by inserting in one of its walls a cotton- 
plugged ventilating cylinder to filter air which gains in- 
gress when the temperature drops. For large groups the 
cylinder should be 2 inches or more in diameter, but for 
a small group a 14-inch hole is adequate. Such ventila- 
tion is desirable for any group, but it is essential to one 


PLATE 22 


Courtesy of The Cleveland Museum of Art. 


A.—PRIMITIVE TRADE—A SMALL GROUP BY DWIGHT FRANKLIN. 


Courtesy of Milwaukee Public Museum, 
B.—THE COTTON FIELD—ANOTHER GROUP WITH MINIATURE FIGURES. 


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MUSEUM GROUPS 237 


which is artificially lighted and therefore is subject to 
recurrent heating and cooling. 


LIGHTING 


Artificial light adds immeasurably to the effectiveness 
ofa group. In fact, the most striking of groups are those 


which depend primarily upon tints secured with colored ~ 


glass, shadows, high lights and other effects of illumina- 
tion. Ifthe economy is necessary, a button, to be pushed 
when the exhibit is viewed, may be provided. 

For small groups, the best incandescent lamps are those 
with candelabra base which are designed to be wired in 
an ordinary house circuit. The light-box, in which they 
are housed, should be separate from the interior of the 
group, and the light should pass through concealed win- 
dows at the top or sides. Light-boxes must be easily 
accessible so that bulbs may be replaced, and they should 
have free ventilation to prevent overheating. 

Iluminated groups show to best advantage in a dark- 
ened room, and for this reason they lend themselves 
especially well to hallways and dark nooks. 


GROUPINGS AND PERIOD ROOMS 


Any assemblage of objects in natural grouping is 
essentially a museum group. The objects may be a 
fine table, a ceramic, a picture and a rug brought together 
in a corner, or perhaps an assortment of old cooking 
utensils arranged about a Colonial fireplace. Such group- 
ings are the rudiments of so-called perzod rooms—rooms or 
alcoves each furnished throughout with objects of a period. 
Such a room may be a document in that it contains ob- 
jects which were actually used together, and even the 
woodwork and walls may be authentic reconstructions. 
On the other hand, a period room may be an example in 


238 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


that it contains objects which are all of like proveni- 
ence and might conceivably have been found together. 
There are many unexplored possibilities for art museums 
in the use of cases with special backgrounds and lighting 
for exhibition of objects or groupings which gain beauty 
and meaning if shown in suggestive setting. | 


REFERENCES— 


ABBOTT, CLINTON G. Smali groups at small cost. Publica- 
tions Amer. Ass’n. Museums, N.S. No. 3, 1927, 9-13. 
Dunn, Louise M. The beaver group. Museum Work, 

Nov.—Dec. 1921—Jan.—Feb. 1922, 4: 108-110. 
FRANKLIN, Dwicut. A recent development in museum 
groups. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1916, 10: 110-112. 
Lucas, FREDERIC A. The story of museum groups. Ameri- 
can Museum of Natural History, 32 pp. (Reprint from 
The American Museum Journal, 1914, 14: I-15, 50-65.) 

RICHARDSON, JENNESS. Lighting museum groups. Publica- 
tions Amer. Ass’n Museums, N. S. No. 3, 1927, 3-8. 


PLATE 23 


Courtesy of Oakland Public Museum. 
COLONIAL KITCHEN—A PERIOD ROOM. 


- FOURTH PART 


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XXXIX 
THE MUSEUM AT WORK 


COLLECTIONS and exhibits are parts of a museum’s 
equipment, and the use made of them measures the wis- 
dom of acquiring them and providing for their safety. 
Collecting and preserving are very necessary functions, 
but they are not ends in themselves. 

Most museums render public service—whether in- 
directly through research or directly through education. 
The latter seems to be the more fruitful line of effort for 
a small museum, and energies which are put forth in such 
work are well spent. In fact, it has been asserted that 
museums ‘‘are able to give more, hour for hour, than 
any one of the great universities.’’ When the educational 
function is discharged others are not apt to be neglected, 
since the work requires background that can be supplied 
only by a well-rounded program, and invariably it enlists 
support, both moral and financial, for an institution that 
maintains it. 


RELATIONS WITH SPECIAL GROUPS 


Projects laid out on clearly defined lines to meet the 
needs of specific groups of people ordinarily make up a 
large part of an educational program. ‘The people may 
be young or old. Of the former class are the children 
who present themselves at the portals of any museum 
which undertakes. to cater to child-interests. School 
classes form other groups, and coteries of adults with 
special interests make up the balance of the clientele. 
To the problems of dealing with these various circles, 
following chapters are devoted. 

BAT 


242 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Relations of art museums to designers, producers and 
distributors of industrial art have been under much dis- 
cussion during recent years, but no great progress seems 
to have been made toward increasing the usefulness of 
museums in this direction except at certain of the larger 
institutions. It is doubtful whether the work of most 
small museums can develop far in this direction. For 
exhaustive treatments.of the subject, reference may be 
made to books by.Charles.R..Richards:.. _Art in industry 
(1922) and Industrial art and the museum (1927)—both 
published by the Macmillan Company. 


RELATIONS WITH THE GENERAL PUBLIC 


Quite as important as work with special groups is the 
influence which may be exerted upon the general public 
through exhibits and information service. The audience 
is mixed and shifting, and the method is hit-or-miss, but, 
in the aggregate, results would be astounding if they 
could be measured. Without doubt, exhibits of fossils 
and museum publicity did much to prepare the public 
mind for the recent world-wide discussion of evolution, 
and this is but one example in one field. 

The influence of exhibits upon museum visitors is in- 
creased greatly by explanatory remarks. A person whose 
function is to interpret exhibits by word of mouth is 
called a docent, In some museums docents wander about 
and cater to casual interest and curiosity. In others they 
meet parties in the museum either at scheduled times or 
by special arrangement. In asmall museum, the director 
or members of the curatorial staff are sure to be called 
upon to act as impromptu docents since limited quarters 
afford no opportunity for refuge in a remote office. Al- 
though a sort of casual docentry is highly desirable and 
doubtless will always be practiced, there is a wholesome 


THE MUSEUM AT WORK 243 


tendency to curtail the undirected efforts of docents. In 
fact, even the title docent is disappearing and those who 
give instruction are being designated as instructors. 

Every museum may render an educational service by 
giving information in response to inquiries received by 
letter, telephone and visit. In many cases the help may 
be very real, as in the case of a farmer who wants an in- 
sect pest identified, a decorator who desires to inspect 
photographs of period furniture or a reporter who seeks 
material for an article about an early settler. 


MISSPENT EFFORT 


Some museum officers fall into the error of thinking 
that it is good to indulge in social affairs for their own 
sake. To be sure, festive gatherings may occasionally 
serve useful purposes, since at times important business 
may be aided by convivial setting. Ordinarily, however, 
serious work can be carried forward at its face value. 

Also it is uneconomical to undertake a great variety 
of projects and services without regard to the resources 
at command. After having laid out a comprehensive 
program it is well to concentrate first upon one project 
in each of the branches of work. If further restriction 
of activity is necessary, the range of application of pro- 
jects may be limited. For example, school-service, which 
remains to be discussed in detail, may be carried on at 
first in only one of its two phases, and even this work may 
be further simplified by rendering service to only one 
school or to only one teacher. Successful work, even on 
a small scale, may be counted upon to win approval, 
whereas ineffective work, however extensive, is likely to 
be harshly judged. 


ADMISSION AND ATTENDANCE 
Ideally a museum would be open free from 9 A.M. until 


244 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


IO P.M. every day of the year, in order that its resources 
might have fullest opportunity for use. Practically, how- 
ever, this is not possible, and therefore each museum 
must determine how long its doors can be kept open and 
on how many days admission can be free. These ques- 
tions are decided on the basis of facilities for policing and 
cleaning, cost of artificial light and the need for such 
small sums as may be derived from admission fees. 

If business hours—g A.M. to 5 P.M.—can be kept on 
five days of the week, a good impression is made. On 
Saturdays, most museums observe longer hours than 
offices, since the afternoon is an opportunity for visitors. 
Sunday morning is not important but Sunday afternoon 
is the time of best attendance. Regular evening openings 
are arranged by some museums, and many others open 
exhibition rooms on occasions of evening lectures. 

Pay-days are sometimes instituted partly on the ground 
that members, who pay dues, should have the special 
privilege of free admission now and then. However, 
there are more museum members who join because they 
like to be identified with a good work than there are ones 
who expect to secure a full return. Therefore, the 
tendency is strongly towards elimination of all pay-days, 
especially by small museums which are not much used 
by copyists and art students who might find great ad- 
vantage in the seclusion which pay-days afford. | 

The number of visitors depends upon the size of the 
community as well as the attractiveness of the museum 
and conditions of admittance. In cities of fewer than 
fifty thousand inhabitants, where distances of travel are 
short, attendance should be nearly equal to population. 
In a few small places, the attendance is several times as 
great, by reason of the repeated comings of classes. In 
big cities the numbers of visitors are relatively unim- 
pressive. | 


THE MUSEUM AT WORK 245 


REFERENCES— 


DANA, JOHN CoTTON. Increasing the usefulness of museums. 
Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1916, 10: 80-87. 

Macoon, Eva W. The museum information bureau. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1917, 11: 46-50. 

PuTNAM, Epwarp K. Museums passive and active. Dav- 
enport, Iowa, The Contemporary Club, 1925, 14 pp. 


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fatty “ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 


THE children are the most receptive individuals in the 
community. Upon their minds deep and lasting impres- 
sions may be made with relatively little difficulty. It 
is natural, therefore, that museums should address much 
effort to this educational opportunity, and from the prin- 
ciples of museum work it is equally natural that they 
should be concerned less with talented children than with 
those of average mentality—of predominant type. 

There are two groups of children with which a museum 
may deal most advantageously: children who come to 
the museum of their own accord, and children at school. 
Of course, members of the first group are also included 
in the second, but the two groups are approached under 
such different conditions that they are treated as though 
mutually exclusive. This chapter is devoted to activi- 
ties for the first group, which is a relatively small one. 

Although a certain amount of unscheduled instruction 
may be given to individual children, work is carried on 
for the most part during so-called museum hours. Cus- 
tomarily, a series of hours is arranged for Saturday morn- 
ings and, if too many children attend, another series may 
be added for any convenient afternoon. Only the ex- 
ceptional instructor can deal with more than perhaps 
twenty-five girls and boys. 

The purpose of the museum hour is to give the children 
opportunity to see and touch museum material, to observe 
it closely, to reason from what they see, and to express 
their conclusions in speech or drawing. For young chil- 
dren, systematic procedure is necessary and, therefore, 

246 


ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 247 


the hour divides itself usually into two parts—the one’ 
devoted to group discussion, the other to museum games. 
For older children, instruction resolves itself into the 
informal work of a class or club. 


GROUP DISCUSSION 


At the beginning of a museum hour the instructor leads 
a discussion based upon a few selected museum objects. 
It is generally agreed that remarks should be entirely 
commentary upon objects and not in the nature of a talk 
which the objects illustrate more or less. The temptation 
on the part of the instructor to do a great deal of talking 
is so strong that in many instances the work takes the 
form of a lecture, talk or story. In fact the museum hour 
is called the story hour in many places. However, critical 
examination of results indicates that the story, though 
valuable as entertainment to provide emotional back- 
ground, is ineffective as a method of instruction. The 
less the instructor talks, the better. 

After the introductory discussion has been continued 
for perhaps half an hour, the group is released to permit 
the children to extend their observations by examining 
museum exhibits. In order to organize this phase of the 
work, the game method is employed extensively. 


(ly it. [AA 6 


MUSEUM GAMES ue A. 


ces Pe ee 


A great many museum games have been devised but 
all of them are problems requiring examination of exhibits 
for solution. Part of a solution may be contained in 
a label, but observation and independent thought as well 
as label-reading should be induced. The following game 
is typical. 

t Studies made in the Educational Department, The Cleveland Museum 
of Art. 


248 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


BIRD GAME NO. 1? 


I. The cow bird usually lays its eggs in 


2. Six bird enemies are 


3. A king fisher captures its prey with its bill, s 
its are small. | 


4. A has pointed tail 
feathers to prop itself against the tree trunk. 


5. The smallest egg is laid by 
the largest by 


6. An owl has very soft feathers; these help it to 
fly at night. 


7. It is hard to see the green heron in the woods. 
Its look like branches and 
its imitate the color of 
leaves and shadows. 


8. The red poll and snow bunting are winter birds. 
It would be harder to see the 
against the snow, while the 
would not easily be seen among weeds. 


A game may be printed or mimeographed on a sheet 
of which each child receives a copy. When one is finished 
correctly, another is begun. These activities require very 
little supervision and are instructive and fascinating. 
For very young children it is helpful to print each ques- 
tion on a separate slip or card so that sustained independ- 
ent work is not required. The following are further 
examples, numbered for this form of presentation. ? 


I. is the stem of a grass-like plant 
which growsin Asia. It grows to be very tall 

* Prepared by the Buffalo Museum of Science. : 

2 Prepared by The Children’s Museum of Boston. 


| PLATE 24 


Courtesy of Buffalo Museum of Science. 
A MUSEUM GAME IN PROGRESS. 


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. 
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ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 249 


and large. The wood is used in many ways 
by the people who live where it grows. 


109. shells were once used for money 
in Africa. 


157. Can you read what is written on the Egyptian 
pupil’s slate? 


The difficulty of a game may be suited to the age of the 
players. Some advanced games are based upon an entire 
session of museum instruction—including a talk and a 
period of observation. 


CLASSES OR CLUBS 


The casual relations which are established with children 
who attend museum hours may be developed in some 
cases—especially among the older boys and girls. To 
provide for more serious interest, classes are organized. 
One museum calls its classes Hobby Clubs and arranges 
for election of officers and related features which are 
attractive though incidental. There may be as many 
clubs as there are major interests among the children— 
an art club, stamp and coin club, history club, bird club, 
flower club, mineral club and many others. In order 
not to over-organize, however, it is best to have few clubs 
each devoted to a general subject. Some of the children 
may join several of the groups in succession 

For each group it is customary to lay out definite work 
amounting to a simple course of study. One may be 
given opportunity to draw and color under such guidance 
that a basis is laid for appreciation of art. Others are 
led in laboratory work or study of history or science col- 
lections. Walks or field excursions may also be arranged. 
Such work is only one step removed from some of the 
activities in which Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire 


250 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Girls and Wood Crafters regularly engage, and in con- 
sequence these organizations may sometimes be drawn 
to the museum. 

A new method of conducting field work in nature study 
on the project basis is that of making a nature trail along 
which plants and other natural features are labeled.? 


CREDIT FOR WORK 


In order to give visible purpose to the work of classes, 
it is helpful-to set up standards of attainment and to 
offer rewards. A fair example of the practice is given by 
the following statement: 


Opportunity is now given for children to work at 
the Museum? in eight different subjects represented 
by the collections. A student may begin work at his 
convenience and spend as much time as he pleases on 
any course. Completion of each course entitles him 
to a certificate of credits which count toward a medal. 
A bronze medal is awarded for 50 credits and a silver 
medal for 100 credits. 

Courses may be chosen in any order. Certificates 
that count toward a bronze medal are decorated with 
a bronze border. After a student has earned the 
bronze medal, his credits count toward a silver medal 
and he receives silver bordered certificates. 

The courses are as follows: 


SUBJECT VALUE OF CREDITS 
Animal Study 20 
Aquarium Study | 10 
Insect Study 15 


* This plan is fully explained in: Lutz, Frank E. Nature trails. See 
reference on page 139. ‘ 
2 The Brooklyn Children’s Museum. © 


ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 251 


Bird Study 15 
Mineral Study 3 10 
Botany 10 
History 10 
Geography 10 


At the completion of each course, an examination is 
offered. ‘The following syllabus of requirements for a 
certificate indicates the scope of one of the courses as 
well as the character of the test. 


REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CERTIFICATE IN BOTANY 


I. Understand the structure of flowering plants: 

I. Learn the parts of a flower and the use of each 
part. Draw the parts of a flower. 

2. Name all of the parts in each model of a flower 
in the Botany Collection. Give the name of 
the family represented by each model. 

3. Find pictures in books in the Library to illus- 
trate how plants are fertilized by insects. 

4. Study models of the root tips and tree trunk and 
draw them, labeling each part and telling what 
it does for the plant. 

5. Study the models of the seedlings of monocotyle- 
dons and dicotyledons. Draw and label an 
example of each. 

6. Make a list of the different stems in the Botany 
Collection and tell what kind of work each 
does. 

7. Make a list of the types of leaves in the Botany 
Collection and make a labeled drawing of each 
one. 

8. Write in your note book the name of every living 
flower you see in the Museum. 


252 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


IT. Study non-flowering plants: 

I. Find in the Library, pictures and descriptions 
which will help you to understand the life 
histories of algae, mosses, mushrooms, ferns 
and conifers. 


2. Make labeled drawings of a moss plant, a mush- 
room and a fern frond. 


III. Study trees: 


1. Draw twigs of horse chestnut, labeling bud scales, 
leaf scars, lenticels and annual rings. 


2. Learn to recognize all the twigs on the flower 
table and draw examples of 
(a) Opposite buds (c) leaf buds 
(b) Alternate buds (d) flower buds — 
3. Make a list of 40 trees that you have learned 
to recognize by 
(a) outline (c) bark (e) leaves 
(b) branching (d) twigs (f) flowers 
4. Make a list of the different species of trees that 
you see on the way from your home to your 
school; your home to the Museum. 
5. Read in the Library on the following subjects 
and keep a list of the references you use. 
The big trees of California 
Forest reservations in the United States 
The value of forests in regulating rainfall 
The value of forests in preventing floods : 
The value of trees to city people a 
The enemies of trees a 


IV. Make a labeled collection of 


25 twigs of trees 25 seeds and fruits 
25 leaves 25 flowering weeds 


ACTIVITIES FOR CHILDREN 253 


V. Write a composition of 500 to 1,000 words on your 
favorite subject in Botany. 


VI. Write a report of the plants you have found most 
interesting in your trips to the Botanic Garden 
and Greenhouse. 


Credit may be given for all children’s work and not 
just for study courses, as indicated by the following rules: 


CREDIT SYSTEM 


All young people working for the Diploma or Medal 
of the Buffalo Museum of Science will be awarded the 
following credits upon the completion of the work re- 
quired: 

20 units must be earned for the Diploma and 30 
units for the Medal. 

All young people obtaining the medal will receive in 
addition a membership card that will make them mem- 
bers of the Museum until they are 21 years of age. 


Perfect attendance at the Story Hours 3 units 
Perfect attendance at the Sunday Lectures of the 
Roosevelt Field Club 2 units 
Completion of each of 6 series of Games I unit 
Completion of all the games—an extra 3 units 
Completion of each of 3 study courses 2 units 


A Brown Certificate represents I unit; a Blue Cer- 
tificate 2 units; and a White Certificate, 3 units. 


Besides reward in the forms indicated above, successful 
accomplishment may also be recognized by giving a child 
responsibility of which it may be proud, and which also 
stimulates continuance of the interest. Several museums 
appoint the graduates of study courses to the position of 


254 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Junior Docent, and each appointee has the privilege of 
acting as a docent to the general public on certain occa- 
sions. These little instructors learn as much in their 
efforts to teach others as they do in their regular prepara- 
tion. | 

Some of the examples given in this chapter are taken 
from the practice of large museums but many very small 
museums carry on exactly the same kinds of work. In 
fact, museums in small communities have more chance 
of doing work that is commensurate with the need than 
those in large cities. 


REFERENCES— 


ADAMS, CHARLES C. The relation of field’ excursions to the 
activities of local museums. Proc. Amer. Ass’n Museums, 
IQIO, 4: 112-124. 

CoRMACK, MarRIBELLE. ‘The story-teller in the natural his- 
tory museum. Hobbies (Published by Buffalo Society of 
Natural Sciences), September 1924, 5: 3-16. 

Howarp, RossiTEr. Principles of museum education. Mu- 
seum Work, Nov.—Dec. 1923, 6: I2I-124. 

Howe, WINIFRED E. The museum story—its preparation 
and its place in educational work. Museum Work, Nov. 
1919, 2:51-54. 

Macoon, Eva WATERMAN. Children’s clubs in connection 
with museums. Museum Work, Nov. I918, 1: 49-55. 

SLocum, ANNA D. A study of nations through the museum. 
Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1916, 10: 34-35 (Introduc- 
tory paper of a symposium). | 

VAUGHAN, AGNES L. The background of history. Proc. 
Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1914, 8: 33-39 (Introductory paper 
of a symposium). , 

Do museum instructors teach appre- 
ciation or merely facts? Museum Work, Feb. 1919, I: 144- 
148. 


XLI 
SCHOOL-SERVICE 


In its efforts to reach children, a museum naturally 
looks to the place where children gather—the school. 
This can be said also of the supporters of every cause or 
““ism,’’ but here the likeness ends since museums establish 
their relations with schools by offering unique assistance, 
not by proposing new subject-matter for the curriculum. 
After decades of experimentation, the school-service of 
museums has taken form as two distinct lines of work, 
both of which make use of museum collections and call 
upon the special knowledge possessed by museum workers. 
The two parts of the service are: 


LENDING OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL TO THE SCHOOL— 
to give the teacher objects of her own selection for use 
as aids in the regular work of the classroom. 

INSTRUCTION OF CLASSES AT THE MusEUM—to give the 
children opportunity to broaden their experience be- 
yond the horizons of the classroom, the home and the 
street. 


In this chapter, the work is discussed only as it applies 
to elementary schools, but by extension of the same prin- 
ciples the services may be rendered to high schools also. 
In fact, it is sometimes found expeditious to begin school- 
service at the top and, by degrees, to extend it downward 
through the grades. 


LENDING OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 
Geography, nature study and art are rarely if ever 
taught in the schools without the use of illustrative mate- 
rial of some kind, and a number of other subjects—most 
255 


ieee 


256 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


notably history and composition—may be presented better 
with visual aids than without. Pictures are much utilized 
because they are everywhere available, easy to handle 
and durable. Objects, which in most cases are better 
than pictures for classroom work, are not much used 
because they are difficult to get and many are easily 
damaged. However, objects are the stock-in-trade of 
museums, and the lending of them to teachers is an im- 
portant part of museum educational work. 

The material which is used for school-service is the same 
as that already described in the chapter on the lending 
collection—page 140. In fact, school-service is the chief 
reason for existence of the lending collection. 

It is essential to success of the service that demand for 
it come from the teachers, even though at first no more 


‘than one classroom is supplied. Beginnings may be con- 


structive—however humble for reasons of small demand 
or scant resources. Also it is imperative that teachers 
get the material which they want at the time when they 
need it; the aim of the service is to assist teachers in their 
regular scheduled work. To this end a printed or mimeo- 
graphed catalog of the collection ‘should be available to 
teachers on request, and order-slips should also be supplied. 
~ Material may be conveyed to schools and back by mes- 
senger or by automobile. In a small city it is sometimes 
possible to have several school boys appointed as mes- 
sengers for each school, but it is better that deliveries 
be made by an employee of the museum. One small 
institution has purchased a car with dollar contributions 
made for the purpose, and the director herself mobilizes 
the lending collection. If long distances must be covered 
the service usually has to be limited, but infrequent de- 
liveries are better than none. Several museums which 
have extended the service to schools of the county have 
secured substantial county appropriations in return. 


SCHOOL-SERVICE 257 


Loans are usually made for.a period of. only one week. 4 
This short term has the advantage of prompting immediate 
use of the material which otherwise might be laid aside 
and forgotten. A simple system is one that requires the 
messenger to make one round of the schools each week 
—always on the same day—delivering material ordered 
a week earlier, collecting what has been used during the 
week and taking up order-slips for deliveries on the next 
visit. ‘This requires that teachers anticipate their wants, 
but orders are usually accepted by telephone or mail 
for needs discovered after the messenger has left. New 
material should not be lent until old has been returned. 
_ Experience shows that it is not wise to give material 
to schools, since collections developed in schools usually 
do not have full use or proper care. 


INSTRUCTION OF CLASSES AT MUSEUM 


A single school class does not ordinarily visit a museum 
more than once or twice a year, and therefore such in- 
struction as it receives must be designed to accomplish 
its purpose in a short time. Since the aim is to broaden 
the child’s experience beyond the usual horizons, the work 
must be general in character. The chief value of the 
visit lies in the opportunity to become acquainted with 
museum material at first hand, and this opportunity is 
afforded by group discussion followed by museum games. 
These methods are discussed in the foregoing chapter— 
page 247. 

In some museums, numbers of classes are brought to- 
gether and given an illustrated lecture followed by a 
tour of exhibition rooms. This represents an attempt 
to extend instruction to large numbers of children, but 
it is not a method which museums in small communities 
are called upon to adopt. 


258 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Subjects which are to be treated should be chosen with 
reference to the grades of visiting classes, and the series 
of lessons which any class receives during its eight suc- 
cessive school years may be planned so that it constitutes 
a sort of course. For a general museum, it would be 
ideal if each class of each school could make three visits 
annually, so that there might be one lesson in history, 
one in science and one in art each year. Such satisfactory 
arrangements are rarely possible, but if definite subject 
matter is assigned for each grade, and records are kept 
for each class, a symmetrical plan can be developed as 
work progresses. At best, the instruction is of the hit- 
or-miss variety—seed being scattered broadcast, so to 
speak, in the knowledge that enough of it will take root 
to repay the effort. 

The sympathy and cooperation of school authorities 
is essential to full success of school-service. In order to 
insure good attendance and to have the work taken seri- 
ously both by teachers and pupils, visits should be made 
during school hours, and, if practicable, on a schedule laid 
out at the beginning of the term or school year. A plan 


of cooperation which is regarded as the best practice yet 


developed, provides that the schools assign a teacher to 
carry on instruction at the museum, The teacher is 
customarily chosen by the museum director, and she 
works under his supervision, although her salary is paid 
by the school department. In some museums several 
teachers are so assigned, but a small institution should 
be able to carry out its program with the aid of one person 
on full or part time. 

If the schools are not entirely sympathetic, a museum 
may address itself to the teachers individually. A form 
letter explaining school-service, sent to each teacher at 
the opening of school, may be expected to result in some 
visits, but a personal approach to a few teachers is much 


a ae Ea, iN 


ae % 


Oe ne 


SCHOOL-SERVICE 259 


better. From service rendered effectively to only one 
or two classrooms, extension of the work usually follows 
naturally. If funds are limited, this type of beginning 
is the best to elicit the necessary additional support. 

In large cities there are transportation problems which 
are solved usually by providing busses or special trolley 
cars, at the expense of the museum or the school as the 
case may be. In most small communities such difficulties 
are not encountered. 


REFERENCES— 


The principles of school service are discussed in references 
given in the foregoing chapter. Catalogs of illustrative 
material are listed in references following the chapter on the 
lending collection—page 146. 


XLIT 
ADULT EDUCATION 


DURING recent years there has been a continuous in- 
crease of interest in the education of persons who are past 
school age. Correspondence schools have shown extraor- 
dinary growth, universities have established extension 
departments, libraries have offered reading courses, social 
and vocational organizations have developed class work 
of one sort or another and in many other quarters efforts 
are afoot which indicate appreciation of the importance 
of such work. Quite recently a new tendency has ap- 
peared—the inclination to take stock of what is being 
done, in the hope of determining upon lines of effort 
that are most successful and of formulating plans by which 
adult education in any community may be carried on in 
its several aspects by coordinated effort. Museums have 
long concerned themselves with adult education and it 
is to be anticipated that they will hold an important 
place in any newly developed scheme of community ser- 
vice. 

All of this is coming about at the instigation of persons 
who seek educational advantages and not at the urging 
of those who offerthem. In fact adult education has been 
defined by Keppel’ as ‘‘the process of learning, on the 
initiative of the individual, seriously and consecutively 
undertaken as a supplement to some primary occupation.” 

The element of consecutive work is stressed advisedly. 
‘What nationally we lack the most, as I see it, is the 
habit—and in most communities the opportunity as well 
—of consecutive study in some subject for its own sake 

*Keppel, Frederick P. Education for adults. The Yale Review, 
April 1926, 15: 417-434. 

260 


——_ ten pe Te 


ADULT EDUCATION 261 


—history, literature, science, the fine arts, what you will— 
not to fill the pay envelope, directly or indirectly, but to 
develop in the student what experience has proved to be 
one of the most durable satisfactions of human life.”’ 
The weight which must be attached to this assertion is 
sufficient to overbalance a good deal that has been taken 
for granted in museum circles, and one is tempted to 
think that perhaps the most significant activity of muse- 
ums in this field is consecutive class instruction—a type 
of work which is relatively undeveloped. This suggests 
that perhaps museums may be able to offer, in conjunc- 
tion with library reading courses, the one essential which 
such courses lack, namely, opportunity for discussion. 
Under the guidance of museum staff members or of peri- © 
patetic leaders, museum classes, following library reading 
courses illustrated by museum material, may become im- 
portant factors in adult education of the future. 

_ However, up to the present, museums have been con- 
cerned not so much with small groups as with popula- 
tions. They have worked on the principle that educa- 
tional efforts scattered broadcast may be counted upon 
to raise the general level of culture in a community. 
Methods have been developed accordingly. The three 
most generally adopted instruments, in probable order 
of importance, are the newspaper, the exhibit and the 
lecture. 

Doubtless the most potent of all agencies for influenc- 
ing the people is the newspaper. It is read by almost 
every one; it is trusted implicitly by many; it is regular 
and tireless in its hammerings at public opinion. With 
respect to the press, museums are strategically situated 
since the information which every museum worker has 
at command is suitable material for news print, and even 
museum objects may be presented to the eye after a 
fashion by printed pictures. Stories from history, art 


262 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


and science—many of them illustrated—are written by 
museum staff-members and by associated students, col- 
lectors and amateur specialists. Newspaper correspond- 
ents and free-lance writers also use much museum mate- 
rial that is put at their disposal, and editors usually look 
favorably upon such copy because it contains no personal 
propaganda. 

Exhibits doubtless hold second place to publicity in 
point of effectiveness, because they reach smaller audiences 
and make only occasional impressions upon any individual. 
Installations are not prepared especially for purposes of 
adult education, of course, but regular museum exhibits 
have a real influence in this direction. Permanent dis- 
plays make a somewhat limited impression upon large 
numbers of people; temporary exhibits are probably more 
impressive but they reach small audiences as a rule. It 
is difficult to say which kind is the more important. 

Lectures also have a share in educational work for 
adults since most museums conduct series of lectures 
during the winter. If there are funds to pay fees, pro- 
fessional lecturers are brought from out-of-town, but this 
is not necessary; many courses are run with local speakers 
who donate their services, and museum workers who 
exchange engagements. Lectures which are delivered in 
a museum auditorium may be open to the public or they 
may be for members of the museum only. Lectures given 
at schools or other community centers are customarily 
free to the public and are likely to be quite far-reaching 
in their influence. 

The Buffalo Museum of Science has developed a serv- 
ice which has not as yet been taken up by other museums, 
but which has proven so successful that there is little 
doubt of its more general adoption in the course of time. 
The service consists of lending a projection lantern, a 
set of slides and a written lecture to anyone who can 


ADULT EDUCATION 263 


furnish proper credentials. These sets are taken home 
by the citizens of Buffalo and lectures are run off for 
members and friends of some thirty families every night. 
The Museum has a long list of subjects from which to 
choose and the number of lectures and slide-sets is being 
increased. If means could be found to start this service 
in other cities, through cooperation which the Museum 
would gladly give, there would doubtless be rapid exten- 
sion of the plan. Even a single lantern moving about 
through the homes of a small community would be of 
much benefit in the long run. 

| There are many other ways in which museums assist 
ye tt the education of adults—almost every branch of 
work having greater or less effect—but the important 
methods are those enumerated. Educational publicity, 
exhibits and lectures are within reach of every museum, 
and perhaps the future will witness development of the 
beginnings that have already been made in offering con- 
sectitive work for individuals and small groups. 


‘Sem PTI 


XLII 
THE MUSEUM LIBRARY 


EVERY museum requires a reference library for the use 
of its staff and the public, but ordinarily it does not need 
a large collection. If non-essential books are secured in 
any number, the primary purpose of the library is sure 
to be defeated by the very labor of caring for it, and fur- 
thermore the. museum may, by inadvertence, usurp 
a part of the domain of the local public library. However, 
a few hundred reference works on subjects covered by a 
museum should constitute a valuable addition to the 
educational resources of any community—an addition 
that is not likely to be made available except through 
the instrumentality of a museum. 

There is relatively little occasion to extend the library 
beyond bounds in the fields of art and science, but in 
that of history a temptation is presented by newspapers, 
annals, archives and other printed records as well as un- 
published documents and manuscripts. Such matter is 
valuable, and, out of a sense of responsibility for its preser- 
vation, a museum is apt to overburden itself with duties 
of the caretaker. The proper custodian for these records 
is the local historical society, and, as suggested in the 
chapter on cooperating organizations, museums should 
establish such relations with historical societies that 
there may be free give-and-take of material between 
them. With reasonable understanding between the his- 
torical society, the library and the museum in any com- 
munity, the various local library problems should find 
ready solution. 

264 


THE MUSEUM LIBRARY 265 


BOOK SELECTION 


The most practical way to develop a small library is 
to secure books only as they are needed, beginning with 
a few general works that have good bibliographies. When 
these books are inadequate new ones may be selected 
from the references which they contain, and these will 
suggest othersin turn. The appended references include 
titles that will be found useful as points of departure. 

For the use of museum staff members, it is advanta- 
geous to secure the more important publications on 
museum methods. The bibliographies of this Manual 
furnish a key to this literature. 


CLASSIFICATION 


The Decimal Classification of Melvil Dewey and the 
Library of Congress Classification—the D. C. and the 
L. C., as they are termed in library parlance—are the 
two systems in most general use, and both of them are 
employed by museums. The Decimal Classification, 
which is published in book form,’ has a notation of num- 
bers divided decimally without limit. It is used more 
than all other classifications combined and is especially 
suited to the needs of public libraries. The Library of 
Congress Classification, which is published as manuscript 
by the Government Printing Office,? is of more recent 
origin. It is quite flexible, has a relatively compact 
notation of letters and numbers, and, largely on account 
of these merits, it is favored for college libraries and very 
large libraries—both of which cover their fields intensively. 
A special advantage to the user of this classification is 
that of being able to purchase printed catalog cards from 
the Library of Congress. These cards, which bear sub- 


t See reference at end of chapter. 
2 See reference at end of chapter. 


266 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


ject headings and L. C. call numbers, make possible a 
substantial saving of time in classifying and cataloging. 

For a small museum which does not propose ever to 
have a large book collection, the Decimal Classification 
is doubtless preferable. It is stable and, though not ideal, 
is shown by long experience to be practical. Its use 
assures uniformity of practice between the local public 
library and the museum, and this should be a stimulus 
to coordinative action and an accommodation to the 
public. 

Many museums which use the Decimal Classification 
have devised their own modifications of the established 
captions. Such original or partly original systems are 
not believed to be entirely advantageous since they violate 
the mnemonic feature of the Classification which is so help- 
ful both to librarian and user, and also render the printed 
index more or less unserviceable. However, if adapta- 
tions are to be made, the variant meanings should be 
marked by a distinctive notation—preferably by introduc- 
ing letters as suggested in the Introduction to Decimal 
Classification. It would add greatly to the general ad- 
vantage if authors of all adaptations would communicate 
with Dorcas Fellows, Library of Congress, Washington, 
D. C., who is editor of Decimal Classification, and who is 
interested in having the system developed in observance 
of its established principles. 

For a museum which has or intends to develop a large 
collection of books on either history, art or science, the 
Library of Congress Classification is probably the more 
satisfactory. It is in use in a number of museums of — 
history, and is advocated strongly. For the science 
museum, it is favored by those who have made compara- 
tive studies of the two systems. However, for a large 
collection of books on art, apparently neither of the Sys- 
tems is ideal, since several museums and art reference 


THE MUSEUM LIBRARY | 267 


libraries have devised classifications of their own. The 
best known is that of The Metropolitan Museum of Art.? 

The technique of caring for a small reference collection 
of books may be learned with the help of any librarian, 
but it is highly desirable that a museum librarian have 
at least the professional library training afforded by a 
summer course at one of the universities which offer such 
instruction. Every librarian should be a member of the 
American Library Association, Chicago, in order to keep 
in touch with the library world. 


REFERENCES— 


GARDINER, ELIZABETH M. The library of the smaller mu- 
seum. Proc. Amer. Ass’n. Museums, 1910, 4: 78-84. 


Book Lists 


Books for the college art library. The Art Bulletin. (Pub- 
lished by the College Art Association of America), Sept. 
1920, 3: 5-60. 


Bibliographies in the following works are also useful as 
book lists for the library of a museum of art. 


The significance of the fine arts. Published under the direc- 
tion of the committee on education of the American Insti- 
tution of Architects. Marshall, Jones Company, Boston, 
1923. | 

REINACH, S. Apollo: an illustrated manual of the history of 
art throughout the ages. New York, Charles Scribner’s 
Sons, 1924. 


Works cited in the text of the chapter on the history collec- 
tions and exhibits—page 158—contain bibliographies for the 
history librarian. For the science librarian a book list is in 
preparation by Agnes L. Pollard, curator of the Staten Island 
Public Museum, New York City. 


t See reference that follows. 


268 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Classification 


DEWEY, MELVIL. Decimal classification and relative index. 
Lake Placid Club, Adirondacks, N. Y., Forest Press, Edi- 
tion II, 1922, 988 pp. Edition 12 is in press. 

Library of Congress. Classification: outline scheme of classes, 
Washington, Government Printing Office, 1926, 25 pp. 

PENNELL, ETHEL A., and WALLACE, Lucie E. Classification 
systems used in the library. New York, Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, 1911, 148 pp. 


XLIV 
PUBLICATIONS 


For purposes not subserved by the newspaper and other 
printed media through which its messages occasionally 
find outlet, a museum may issue publications of its own. 
In this way a special clientele can be reached with cer- 
tainty, and the copy may take any form that is desired. 
Large museums publish extensively, but smaller ones are 
hampered seriously by the high cost of printing, and must 
confine themselves to essential publications, printed mod- 
estly and economically. Most useful are annual reports, 
bulletins and occasional leaflets—all popular in character. 
Technical papers presenting the results of research may 
be contributed to established national journals, and mate- 
rial that is not acceptable to them may be put on record 
in a way that is explained in the chapter on research— 


page 293. 
THE ANNUAL REPORT 


An annual report is an accounting for stewardship. It 
is useful in stimulating interest, securing new members 
and raising funds. Customarily it takes the form of a 
communication from the president of the museum to the 
members.. The president contributes a brief introductory 
statement which leads up to reports of the director and 
of the treasurer. The director’s report embraces any 
reports of curators. The whole account should be as 
brief as possible. It should be restrained, not boastful, 
and it should never beg for money. However, a form of 
gift or bequest may be printed at the end of the treasurer’s 

269 


270 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


report by way of suggestion and to show the exact cor- 
porate title. A list of officers, trustees and staff members 
should appear, and a roll of members of the museum may 
be included. Lists of donors and accessions are usually 
long and tiresome, and these, as well as the roll of mem- 
bers, may be omitted if economy is important. 

Some museums print their articles of incorporation, 
constitution and by-laws in each annual report, but it 
is better to publish these documents as a separate leaflet, 
since they are seldom changed and need not be reprinted 
every year. 


THE MUSEUM BULLETIN 


Popular serials, usually called bulletins, are published 
by many museums and are very useful in holding the 
interest of members. They give space to announcements 
and articles about museum activities and collections. 
Current lists of donors and accessions may appear with- 
out being subject to the objection that attaches to such 
lists for a whole year as they would appear in an annual 
report. Illustrations add greatly to the attractiveness of 
a bulletin. A half tone engraving is more expensive 
than an equal area of ordinary type, but a line cut is 
usually cheaper. A certain amount of standing matter 
is always permissible, and may be helpful in keeping down 
the cost of a bulletin which is reduced in size to the 
minimum. 

A museum bulletin is intended to be read as soon as 
it is received and therefore it should not be too long. 
Eight or twelve pages issued monthly are about right, but 
even four pages quarterly are useful, and this simple form 
should be within the reach of any museum. However, 
if a still cheaper format is desired, the bulletin may be 
mimeographed and the pages stapled together. Scveral 
established publications were started in this way. 


PUBLICATIONS 271 


LEAFLETS 


For various special purposes or occasions little folders, 
or leaflets, may be required. Permanent records, like 
articles of incorporation, constitution and by-laws, may 
also be published in this form. One way to circumvent 
the printing of a special leaflet is to devote a number of 
the bulletin to the subject in question, and to have extra 
copies run off for use as leaflets. At slight additional 
expense such a special number, or a portion of any num- 
ber of a bulletin, may be reprinted in leaflet format 
without running heads and other matter that pertains 
only to the serial. Examples of matter which may be 
treated in this way are: a schedule of lectures, a catalog 
of a special exhibition, a catalog of the lending collection, 
a description of school-service and a campaign leaflet. 


FORMAT 


Museums stand for refinement and good taste, and 
should “express themselves in good printing. ‘This does 
not mean expensive printing necessarily, although higher 
grades of paper and alterations in proof that are some- 
times requisite to the best work are expensive, but it 
does mean judgment in planning and care in supervision. 
Within the range of control by these means, good printing 
is nO more expensive than poor printing. 

Many printers have execrable taste, and some who are 
very good craftsmen are not to be depended upon for 
advice in matters of planning. It is essential that any- 
one who wants good printing be familiar with standards 
and processes in order to be able to give explicit instruc- 
tions and to see that they are carried out. 

There are so many books, pamphlets and articles on 
the processes and products of printing that the subject 
need not be reviewed here. The bibliography lists twa 


272 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


items that apply to museum problems. Suffice it to point 
out a few rules that are most commonly broken. 

Style of type should be selected for legibility, dignity 
and appropriateness to museum publications. There is 
a wide range of choice, but Caslon is as good as any. 
Some museums adopt the same style of type for all work 
and it becomes a sort of trade-mark, but however this 
may be, two styles should not be mixed in one piece of 
work.. Different faces—Roman capitals, small capitals, 
lower case letters, bold face and italics—as well as differ- 
ent sizes of type may be used to secure needed effects of 
display, emphasis and the like, but mixtures even of 
different faces of the same style are desirable only within 
limits. Simplicity should always be sought. | 

Size of type is stated in points. For bulletins, reports 
and leaflets, 10 point is the smallest that is satisfactory 
for main text. Short inserts may be in 8 point. Fora 
publication that need not be crowded, and especially one 
in which an artistic appearance is sought, eleven or 
twelve point is the usual choice. Capitals of the same 
size as used in text, or one size larger, are usually large 
enough for headings. The titles of illustrations are pleas- 
ing if set in smaller capitals. 

The top margin of a sheet should be narrower than 
the bottom margin. In the case of two opposite pages, 
the outer margins of each page should be wider than the 
inner ones, but not as wide as the two adjacent inner ones 
combined. In order of decreasing width, the margins 
of each page should stand as follows: lower, outer, upper, 
inner. Narrow margins are unsightly. 

Any publication from which pages or articles are likely 
to be torn should have the full reference in the running 
head. This is accomplished by showing on the left page: 
page number, name of publication, date; and on the tight 
page: volume and number, name of publication, page 


PUBLICATIONS 273 


number. Thus any page torn out will bear the date on 
one side and the volume and number on the other. For the 
name of the publication on each recto, may be substituted 
the name of the author or the title of the article on that 
page. 

Proportions of printed masses should conform to pro- 
portions of paper. Masses should balance—the center of 
mass being above the middle of the paper—and blotchy 
appearance of light and bold faced type should be avoided. 
All such rules are based on principles of design. 

Paper ought to be chosen to suit the character of the 
printed matter. Half tone illustrations require smooth 
paper, and fine type calls for smoother paper than dis- 
play type, but glossy paper as well as bibulous, soft and 
very rough paper should be avoided for ordinary purposes. 
There are wide selections of medium-priced stock which 
have appearance of quality. White paper and black ink 
make the best combination. Color schemes are prone to 
be bad. 

There are two page sizes which are especially convenient 
for museum publications: octavo—6 by 9 inches more or 
less, and pocket folder size—4 by 9 inches. A pocket 
folder can be enclosed in an ordinary legal envelope and 
the size is therefore to be recommended for special leaflets. 
Annual reports and bulletins are best in octavo, and, if 
they are set in double column, newspaper type can be 
used as next suggested. 


REPRINTING FROM NEWSPAPERS 


In order to secure printing for the cost of paper aud 
press work, it is sometimes possible to publish first in a 
newspaper and then to borrow the type. This plan is 
useful chiefly for matter that is acceptable to a news- 
paper in the exact form in which it is desired for reprints. 


274 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


Otherwise portions may have to be added or deleted 
and other changes made in type. When copy is offered 
to a newspaper with reprinting in view, it is a good plan 
to prepare a lead in news style; after this the desired 
matter may be run in full. The lead may be discarded 
in due course and the remainder of the type used. Cat- 
alogs of exhibitions, schedules or programs of lectures and 
even annual reports are sometimes printed in this way. 

Reprints may be made on paper similar in texture, 
but not in quality, to news print because newspaper type 
does not require a very smooth surface. If a cover or 
title page is added, the new composition should be in the — 
same style as the borrowed type. This precaution can 
do much to overcome objections to appearance, but at 
best the plan is a concession to economy and does not 
yield really good results. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS 


In addition to the local circulation which all museum 
publications should have, a limited distribution for per- 
manent record is desirable. Copies of each important 
item of printed matter should be sent to the Library of 
Congress, to the state library of the home state, to The 


_ American Association of Museums and to museums in 


_ the state and others with which exchange relations are 
_ maintained. , 
At least two copies of everything should be placed in 
_ the museum’s own library at once. Some museums have 
' not complete files of their own publications. 


REFERENCES— 


DIcKINSON, HARRIET E. The care of museum publications. 
Museum Work, Sept.—Oct. 1921, 4: 65-68. 


PUBLICATIONS 275 


OSWALD, JOHN CLYDE. Good printing for museums. Mu- 
seum Work, March-April, 1924, 6: 189-191. - 

WALTER, FRANK K. Library printing. Chicago, American 
Library Association, 1923, 31 pp. (Contains an excellent 
bibliography. ) 


ma, 


XLV 
PUBLICITY 


THE term publicity is sometimes applied to an entire 
program of museum activities, but more commonly and 
more aptly it is used to designate the special means by 
which the work of a museum is kept before the public. 
Although at times the spoken word is the instrument of 
communication, generally the written word is more use- 
ful. The most effective medium for the written word is 
the newspaper. 

As already pointed out, newspaper publicity is of two 
kinds, so far as its purpose is concerned. It may aim to 
make the institution and its work better known, or it 
may be designed to convey information about history, 
science or art. In other words, it may be institutional 
or educational—though the two kinds are not always 
mutually exclusive. 


IN STITUTONSE PUBLICITY 


The problem of securing institutional publicity is largely 
one of doing things to give occasion for it. _ Almost eyery- 


' thing that happens or.is about to happe 


command s space if it is presented properly, but there are 
always the two requirements: news incident and news- 
paper presentation. A story may be killed or a trivial 
incident may be given weight by the manner in which it 
is written up. Therefore a museum director cannot ex- 
pect to get full returns on publicity effort without having 
some insight into the technique of newspaper writing. 
News incidents also are largely under control, for events 
may be moulded or even brought about especially for 
the publicity material which they will give. 
276 


PUBLICITY 277 


There is always some feeling that to seek publicity is 
questionable, and this sentiment is not difficult to under- 
stand. Seekers after personal publicity are often so as- 
siduous in their efforts and so transparent in their conceits 
that more modest persons look upon their method as 
offensive. However, newspaper editors, seeking legitimate 
news, are quick to discriminate, and as a result there are 
open doors for cooperation between newspapers and in- 
dividuals who have legitimate messages for the public. 
This does not mean that names should be omitted from 
newspaper stories. The contrary is true, since person- 
alities lend interest, but undue featuring of people is as 
bad policy as it is bad taste. Right publicity is dignified. 

On the other hand some people are diffident about 
publicity because they fear that their stories will be 
garbled. Usually this may be prevented by giving written 
copy instead of interviews, but the unction to embarrass- 
ment over any inaccuracies that do creep in, is the fact 
that most readers never detect such errors and most of 
those who do, know where to put the blame. After all, 
the risk of an occasional misrepresentation may be taken 
cheerfully in return for the invaluable assistance that 
newspapers can give. 

Educational matter may travel as a rider on almost 
any news story, and the opportunity so afforded adds to 
the significance of institutional publicity. Stories that 
bear upon efforts to extend museum service or to secure 
support are of the utmost importance since success in 
such matters depends upon general understanding of 
what museums are for and how they operate. 


EDUCATIONAL PUBLICITY 


There is far greater opportunity for educational than 
for institutional publicity, since educational subject mat- 
ter is inexhaustible and little or no occasion in the way 


278 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


of news background is needed for its presentation. If 
an object of some interest is acquired or placed on dis- 
play by a museum, that fact alone may afford ample 
introduction for a story. Failing introductory incident, 
however, many articles may be run on their own merits 
in special columns, magazine pages or other newspaper 
features. 

Still, news incident may be helpful in getting a story 
into print, and therefore events are sometimes seized 
upon or brought about solely for purposes of publicity. 
A particularly interesting example of this is offered by a 
practice of The Cleveland Museum of Natural History. 
A large bulletin board has been erected on the lawn in 
front of this museum, and on the bulletin curiosity- 
provoking placards are posted in advance of weekly news- 
paper articles which explain them.* This scheme, which 
has the double purpose of inducing people to read the 
articles and of making the articles more attractive to 
the paper, may be adopted by any museum, and ingenuity 
will devise others of greater or less merit. 


WRITING COPY 


A news-story should be about an event—something 
that has just happened or is about to happen. It states 
fact, not opinion. It narrates; it does not expound or 
argue. ‘The first sentence should present the salient fact 
and should state it news-end foremost. For example: 
‘‘Five hundred persons visited the Blank Public Museum 
last Sunday, setting the highest record for the year, ac- 
cording to the report of a count made by the Blank Troop 
of Boy Scouts,’’ is better than: ‘‘According to the report 
ofacount ...’’ The balance of the opening paragraph 
should finish the story so far as its main facts are con- 


* Madison, Harold L. A pioneer bulletin. Museum Work, Sept.—Oct. 
1923, 6: 85-86. / 


PUBLICITY 279 


cerned, and the succeeding few paragraphs should round 
it out without going into detail. ‘Thereafter the necessary 
space may be taken to add supplementary matter, ampli- 
fying as fully as may be appropriate and quoting when 
convenient. Minor details should be relegated to the 
end because copy is very likely to be cut by the editor. 
In fact, by providing several convenient places to cut, 
the merit of a story is increased. 

Adjectives should be used sparingly. The temptation 
to gush is strong to one who is impressed with the im- 
portance of a subject. It is much better to say: “A 
meeting was held,” than, ‘“An important meeting was 
held.” If the meeting is important the reader discovers 
it from facts that are stated. People like to draw their 
own conclusions and so editors try to give them bare 
facts. If a story is about something that is going to 
happen or has elements of opinion, it may be prepared 
as a signed statement. The editor may then write in- 
troductory paragraphs which make known the fact that 
such opinions are expressed—which is news—and he can 
then complete the account by quoting the statement. 

A story need not bear a headline; it should never have 
one for papers in the large cities. At the top of the first 
sheet should appear the name.of the museum and the 


words ‘ “For release on ( October... .”’ All copy should be 
typed on one side of standard letter-size paper and double 
Spaced. 


~All of the foregoing comments apply to a news story— 


usually called a release. A feature article is quite a dif- 


~ 


ferent matter and may be presented at greater length and 
in the usual essay form. 

Although the newspaper is by far the most valuable 
medium of publicity, other publications are not to be 
overlooked. School papers, club and association publica- 
tions, house organs, church bulletins and theatre pro- 


280 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


grams reach important groups, and it is often possible 
to get space in them. 


REFERENCES— 


Rovutzaun, Evart G. and Routzaun, Mary Swain. Public- 
ity methods reading list. New York, Russell Sage Foun- 
dation, 1924, 48 pp. 

SLosson, Epwin E. Don’ts for would-be writers . . . for 
the public press. Washington, D. C., Science Service, 3 pp. 
(mimeographed). 

WHEELER, JosepH L. The library and the community. 
Chicago, American Library Association, 1924, 417 pp. 


XLVI 
CAMPAIGNS 


In order quickly to achieve some end which requires 
public acquiescence, it is customary to resort to campaign 
methods of publicity. The usual aim is to elicit financial 
support either by action of public officials or vote of the 
people, but the purpose may be to secure recognition and 
use of museum service. Schools, libraries, museums and 
other educational institutions rarely have adequate sup- 
port, either financial or moral, unless their needs are 
brought forcibly to the attention of the people. 

However, spasmodic effort cannot be expected to over- 
come the effects of indifferent management or lax work, 
or to take the place of regular continued publicity. An 
institution must have a background of commendable 
_ performance upon which to base a campaign—except in 
the case of a newly organized or reorganized museum, for 
which the future may be the basis of claims. 

Whatever the character of a campaign, the first step 
is to ascertain whether provision is made in the law for 
the ends that are sought. If a bond issue is proposed, 
the city should have the necessary authority under its 
charter, and if an appropriation is desired, the local 
authorities should be able, under state legislation, to ap- 
propriate for the purpose. If the way is not paved 
legally, the first move must be to secure a charter amend- 
ment or a new enactment, as the case may be. ‘These 
matters are discussed in other chapters—pages 77 and 
59- 

CAMPAIGN TO INFLUENCE OFFICIALS 
A campaign to secure favorable action on the part of 


any body of public officials need not be as strenuous as 
281 


282 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


one to poll a vote, because the number of persons from 
whom action is expected is smaller. Still, such an effort 
has much in common with an appeal to the people be- 
cause officials usually have to be convinced of popular 
approval as well as informed on the merits of a case. 

For the creation of popular sentiment there are two 
most useful methods—newspaper publicity and public 
speaking. During the month or more which should be 
given over to any campaign, stories should be released 
regularly to the press. They should begin with the more 
general aspects of the situation, and in the end should 
deal very specifically with the action that is sought. 
Since news incident is always necessary to give a story 
value in the eyes of an editor, incidents should be manu- 
factured. Interviews with important citizens and public 
utterances of museum trustees or staff members may be 
used to give news action to what is really propaganda. 
Data on conditions in other cities and letters from persons 
out of town may be published toevokea spirit of competition. 

The second approach to the public—that is, through 
public speaking—has direct effect and is useful indirectly 
as a basis for news stories. Usually, it can be carried on 
by persons officially connected with a museum. Public 
gatherings, except such as may be called for the purpose, 
are difficult to reach, but small meetings, such as those of 
clubs, granges and other social bodies, religious, political 
and labor organizations, scouts and many other special 
groups are usually hospitable to outside speakers. After 
presenting his address and perhaps answering questions, 
a speaker should attempt to have the audience express 
itself in the form of a resolution of endorsement. Al] 
resolutions should be collected and copies bound into 
volumes for presentation to officials. In one city a peti- 
tion received the signatures of 33,900 citizens in a popula- 
tion with only 39,000 voters. 


CAMPAIGNS 283 


Efforts to make a public showing, however, should not 
obscure the importance of quiet direct influence. Officials 
may be interviewed and presented with convincing written 
statements of local conditions, supported by statistics 
from other cities. They may be approached through 
friends and by devious channels of legitimate influence, 
and they may even be publicly lunched in order to afford 
opportunity for persuasion through speeches—although if 
a public hearing is held, this last opportunity is afforded 
automatically. 

Usually these various methods suffice, and it is unneces- 
sary to go to the expense of printing campaign literature, 
but, if need be, the methods discussed in the next section 
may be adopted. 


CAMPAIGN TO POLL A VOTE 


In order to influence popular vote, intensive effort 
may be sustained for perhaps a month; people tire of a 
longer campaign. ‘The time deserves to be picked with 
care. A year when public economy is an important issue 
in politics is a bad one for urging museum support, al- 
though campaigns have been known to succeed even 
against such odds. A tie-up with some unpopular issue 
is also dangerous. A bond issue for museum building 
may lose by being voted upon as part of a larger issue 
mainly for streets, let us say; but on the other hand it is 
materially assisted if the streets proposal is a winning 
one. All such conditions should be studied in advance. 

Before starting a campaign it is essential that statistics 
and other facts be in hand and worked up for use. The 
case should be presented clearly and briefly in a campaign 
leaflet which should be printed on fairly light paper for 
convenience in mailing, and should be of postcard size— 
34 by 5% inches—or less, so that a copy may be enclosed 


284. MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


in a small envelope. A great many leaflets are sure to 
be needed—a number equalling at least half the popula- 
tion, and if type is held more copies can be printed at 
short notice. ‘The cost of leaflets is usually the principal 
expense item of a campaign, so that if the printing can 
be secured as a donation, a large obstacle is overcome. 
Posters are useful but not essential. 

While preliminary arrangements are being made, news- 
paper publicity should begin. News of the campaign 
itself should not be released until the organization is 
developed, but the object to be sought should be dwelt 
upon for weeks or months ahead in order to prepare the 
public mind. 

The usual machinery of a campaign is a volunteer 
organization. Although museum trustees may be active 
and the director and members of his staff are to bear the 
burden of work, it is best for those connected with the 
institution to remain in the background so that the cam- 
paign may appear to be conducted by a committee rep- 
resenting the community. The chairman should be an 
important citizen. His influence determines largely the 
amount of publicity that will be received and the recep- 
tion that the effort will be given in many other quarters. 
Members of the committee should be outstanding men 
and women representing social, religious, political and 
other groups. Strong local organizations should be rep- 
resented, and newspaper editors, as well as other individ- 
uals who can give help because of their personal positions, 
should not be overlooked. A large committee is not neces- 
sarily unwieldy since as a whole it need not transact any 
business. The concerted work is usually done by an 
executive committee composed of the chairmen of sub- 
committees and perhaps a few other persons. The mem- 
bers of the large committee may be called on individually 
for specific assistance. 


| er. ’ 
a - 2 
- eo < 
ED Te ea oe = waa 


CAMPAIGNS 285 


Sub-committees may be of two sorts: those which are 
to do certain tasks—provide speakers, arrange for trans- 
portation or canvass—and those which are to make con- 
tacts with specified groups of people—boys, girls, women, 
merchants or labor. The number and character of sub- 
committees must reflect local conditions. There may be 
as many as desired, but the mistake should not be made 
of constituting a sub-committee to do something that 
can be managed better by a member of the force of 
untitled helpers, either volunteer or paid, who should 
be gathered about the museum director to bear the brunt 
of work. If this question is not considered in advance, 
serious administrative difficulty may ensue. 

Each sub-committee may consist of some people who 
will work and others who can use influence. An organiza- 
tion of a dozen sub-committees should be able to reach 
several thousand voters through ordinary channels of 
personal contact even before the campaign begins. 

Each sub-committee should determine upon its own 
program. Through meetings of the executive com- 
mittee, the chairmen of the various sub-committees have 
opportunity to coordinate their work. There should be 
free exchange of assistance between sub-committees which 
represent functions and those which represent groups of 
people. The Speakers Committee—treally a sub-commit- 
tee—should enlist volunteer orators and arrange, with the 
help of other sub-committees, to place speakers before 
as many audiences as possible. It should also seek to 
influence professional speakers such as the clergy to dwell 
upon the campaign. The Transportation Committee 
should find private vehicles to carry workers, especially 
on Election Day, and through the Merchants Committee 
it should arrange for commercial vehicles to convey stocks 
of leaflets and other paraphernalia. The Canvassing 
Committee should find ways to place literature in homes, 


286 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


offices and stores. The Election Day Committee should 
contrive to get out the vote. 

There is no usual practice in handling the school situa- 
tion and publicity. Ordinarily, however, it is better for 
the director to hold these reins than to hand them over 
to sub-committees. The schools are deluged with de- 
mands upon their time, and more can usually be accom- 
plished by an interview with the superintendent than by 
the onsets of a committee. The superintendent may be 
willing to suggest by letter to the principal that certain 
subject matter be presented to the children at a con- 
venient time as the basis perhaps of a composition or 
some other work that is in the regular curriculum. An 
essay in the form of a letter to parents may be taken 
home and be doubly effective. Such help is all that the 
schools can be expected to give. 

Publicity is often turned over to a publicity agent who 
is employed for the period of the campaign to work under 
the director. If the agent should desire a committee to 
abet his efforts one may be appointed, but ordinarily 
an individual who knows the work can do very much 
better if unhampered. | 

Newspaper work for a campaign is not essentially 
different from that for other times although the intensity 
of the effort may offer unusual possibilities. Stories may 
assume the “‘scare ’em’”’ note of political propaganda by 
showing the dire results that would ensue if the vote 
should be lost. Interviews may be secured from public 
men more easily during a campaign than at other times. 
Advertisers may be induced to adapt campaign material 
to their uses in making up advertising copy. 

There is no end of special ways to attract attention. 
But though possibilities are unlimited, the character of 
a campaign must be determined by the amount of money 
available. Excitement should not be allowed to bring 


CAMPAIGNS 287 


about over-commitments. The trustees should adopt a 
budget based upon careful estimates of cost, and its ap- 
propriations should not be exceeded. 


CAMPAIGN FOR MEMBERS 


A campaign for members is essentially one for small 
contributions. Except at the time of establishment or 
reorganization of a museum, such a campaign is hardly 
to be recommended since continued persistent solicitation 
by regular methods is much more productive in the 
long run. However, if a special effort is to be made, it 
usually combines the member-getting methods, discussed 
in the chapter on membership—page 36—with campaign 
methods designed to awaken public interest and so to 
prepare individual minds for a personal approach. 

Some museums employ professional solicitors and pay 
on a commission basis. This practice is not entirely 
satisfactory since it invites criticism from those who feel 
that too large a part of each contribution is dissipated. 


CAMPAIGN FOR RECOGNITION 


A campaign is sometimes launched in order to secure 
recognition for a museum and use of its facilities, but 
unless it takes the form of a week, the effort is likely 
to be not truly a campaign but rather a feature such as 
a contest or a special run of newspaper publicity. On 
the whole, the best way to secure public patronage is to 
develop a sound and useful program and to keep it before 
_ the people day in and day out. 

Weeks are overdone; they recur monotonously every 
year, and there are too many kinds of them. A campaign 
should be of rare occurrence—a hard fight for a definite 
end. Like any other fight it should be undertaken only 
for a good cause and it should be fought hard. 


288 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


REFERENCES— 


ALEXANDER, C. and THEISEN, W. W. Publicity campaigns 
for better school support. Yonkers-on-Hudson, World 
Book Co., 1921, 164 pp. 

SPAULDING, ForrEsT B. Material and plans for a county 
library campaign. Chicago, American Library Associa- 
tion, 1923, 47 pp. (mimeographed). 

WEIERHEISER, RutH V. Campaigning for a new museum. 
Museum Work, July—Aug. 1924, 7: 35-44. 

WHEELER, JOSEPH L. The library and the community. 
Chicago, American Library Association, 1924, 417 pp. 


FIFTH PART 
RESEARCH 


289 


XLVII 
THE SMALL MUSEUM IN RESEARCH 


To increase knowledge is properly a function of mu- 
seums, since most museum collections contain materials 
for research, and many of the persons who are drawn to 
museum work are of the research type of mind. Also, 
in the very nature of things, there seems to be inter- 
dependence between educational effort and scholarship— 
balance between the two being helpful to the full success 
of each. 

However, a small museum may not be able to develop 
any considerable program of research because of staff 
limitations. It is the experience of directors that press- 
ing duties seldom leave time for scholarly pursuits, but 
even if opportunities were abundant, not many directors 
would be likely to engage in research since the qualities 
of mind that make for effectiveness in administrative 
work are not those of the original investigator. On the 
other hand, curators are in contact with research problems 
daily. The care of a growing museum collection is in 
itself not far from research, and therefore it is not sur- 
prising that curators are responsible for most of the con- 
tributions to knowledge which museums make. 

Research cannot well be promoted artificially. It 
must be allowed to develop as the required human ele- 
ments enter into a situation. But deliberately to gather 
up the materials for research is quite possible, and it is a 
duty with respect to any materials that are being rapidly 
dispersed or lost. For this reason every museum may 

291 


292 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


be expected to carry on a continuous survey of its 
region. 


ARCHAZOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL SURVEYS 


An archeological survey is an attempt to discover 
the locations of deposits left by prehistoric man. Its 
purpose is to bring about careful study of any that can- 
not be preserved, and to protect the others from destruc- 
tion at the hands of vandals or persons unqualified to 
disturb them. Because of the rapid disappearance of 
remains and the extensive operations of souvenir hunters, 
amateur collectors and half-trained archeologists, em- 
phasis upon conservation is of great importance. One 
immediate purpose of such effort may be to secure per- 
manent preservation of sites as parks—either state or 
local—so that they may be developed as outdoor exhibits 
and studied without being entirely destroyed. Collec- 
tors, property-owners and citizens who make public 
opinion by their collective thought, have opportunity 
to help in getting information from scattered sources and 
bringing a community of effort to bear upon the delicate 
problems of conservation. A museum which is success- 
ful in discovering and protecting the remains within its 
region is prepared for masterly research extending over 
many years, whereas one which exerts itself only in dig- 
ging is sure to do inferior work in its haste. 

An historical survey also draws upon many scattered 
sources of information, and is dependent upon public 
generosity and cooperation, but objects are not buried in 
the ground and therefore do not have to be left where 
they are for purposes of record. To secure data, early 
settlers may be interviewed, tombstone inscriptions cop- 
ied and perishable records put into permanent form. In 
a questionnaire framed recently by the Indiana Histor- 
ical Commission, information was requested on the fol- 


THE SMALL MUSEUM IN RESEARCH 293 


lowing subjects: first settlements, historic buildings, old 
cemeteries, battlefields, earliest churches, mill sites, 
deserted towns, boundary lines, birthplaces of noted 
people, markets, historic trees, old trails, trade routes and 
underground railroad stations. Among the objects 
sought were: old books, diaries, posters, proclamations, 
commissions, pictures, old china and furniture, clothing 
and textiles, firearms, tools, implements and transporta- 
tion devices. 


TREATMENT OF RESULTS 


Papers giving the results of research may be contrib- 
uted to established technical publications. Few small 
museums are able to do their own publishing and this is 
just as well, since it is undesirable that the number of 
serials be multiplied. 

Reports of surveys are usually so voluminous that to 
publish them in full may be out of the question. Tech- 
nical journals are besieged by contributors and few 
papers of sustained length can be accepted by them. 
However, the record of every survey is valuable and 
proper steps should be taken for its preservation. A way 
to accomplish this is to prepare at least two typewritten 
copies and to deposit them, suitably bound, in different 
places—the original in the library of the museum, and 
the copy in the state library, perhaps. Some studies 
have been put on record by subscription, fifty or more 
copies being purchased by institutions at a price that 
pays the cost of mimeographing and binding. 

In order to make such a piece of work better known, a 
summary may be prepared for several publications. 
This gives students knowledge of the study, apprising 
them of the main conclusion and indicating where the full 
manuscript may be consulted, and also it serves to give 
credit and satisfaction to the author. 


294 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


REFERENCE— 


WISSLER, CLARK. State and local archzological surveys. 
Bulletin of Information, Series of The State Historical 
Society of Iowa, No. 11, 1923, 56 pp. 


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BUILDING 


XLVITI 
PREPARING TO BUILD 


IT is a mistake to build during the early stages of a 
museum’s career. A museum is not a building but an 
organization, and until the organization has taken shape 
it is shortsighted to attempt to house it. Temporary 
quarters afford the best opportunity for natural growth 
up to the point where there is stability, constructive 
work, knowledge of requirements, definite outlook and 
grounding in public sympathy that assures support. 
This is a matter of virility, not of age. A museum may 
reach the building stage in a few years, or after decades 
it may still be unprepared. An institution seldom springs 
to life from the footing of a new house. In fact, it is 
hardly justified in spending its own or the public’s money 
for a building unless the organization is well managed, 
active, growing and gives promise of paying dividends in 
service. 

When the time to build arrives, a museum may find it- 
self in possession of land acquired by gift. If not, efforts 
ought to be made to secure a grant of public land and 
authority for flotation of a city bond issue to provide a 
building. These matters are explained quite fully in 
the chapters on income and plant. Whatever the source 
of building funds may be, museum trustees should have 
authority to choose an architect and to supervise the 
planning of the structure. 


THE ARCHITECT 


On the subject of choosing architects for public build- 
ings in general, Charles Harris Whitaker, Editor of the 
Journal of the American Institute of Architects, writes: 

297 


298 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


“To seek expert knowledge by inviting any and all 
architects in the neighborhood to submit plans and 
sketches is . . . a folly. Expert knowledge cannot 
be had in that way. The architect who enters what is 
known as the ‘wild-cat’ competition cannot possibly 
be expected to be thinking first of the community that 
has thus so foolishly sought his services. On the con- 
trary, by the very law of competitive business, he is 
thinking first of how to get the job, and thus he is always 
tempted to promise much more than he can give with 
the money to be spent. Do not try to get expert 
knowledge in this way; the experience is bound to be 
expensive. 

“Thus it becomes plainer and plainer that the 
problem of getting the right kind of public building is 
the problem of getting the right architect, and he is 
needed from the very outset, be it remembered, and 
not to be called in as a last resort when other methods 
have failed. | 

‘The best way to choose an architect is the Way in 
which one would hire a lawyer or a sewage disposal 
expert or a water-works engineer. Engage him on his 
known record of performance, on the things which he 
has already done for others.’’! 


However sound this last injunction, it is difficult at 
the present time to get an architect who has experience 
with small museum buildings. The field is new, and, until 
it has been worked more fully, trustees will be under the 
necessity not only of finding a capable man but also of 
setting before him a simple and concise statement of the 
uses to which the proposed building is to be put and the 
facilities which it should provide. Therefore, the essen- 


* Municipal index, 1925, published by the American City Magazine, 
New York City, 196. 


(RR Oe ae a ee a ee 


PREPARING TO BUILD 299 


tial qualifications of the architect would seem to be sym- 
pathy with the needs of the museum and fitness through 
temperament and experience to provide for these needs 
in an appropriate structure. Most difficulties seem to 
come from the fact that the trustees give no definite 
specifications, or that the architect is disinclined to con- 
sider functional requirements. 


THE SITE 


The site for a museum building should be easily acces- 
sible from all parts of the community. <A central loca- 
tion is best but in any event the site should be chosen to 
favor the greatest number of people. 

The plot should be ample. In a small community 
there is no reason for the choice of a small lot demanding 
vertical construction, although this feature is making 
its appearance in museum planning for large cities. The 
land should provide not alone for immediate building 
needs but also for future growth. Openness of plot 
reduces the fire hazard arising from proximity to other 
buildings, and tends to reduce the nuisances of dust, 
smoke and noise. Such matters, though secondary to 
questions of general location, are of importance. 

Any factors which enter into the cost of construction or 
determine working conditions in the finished building 
should be taken into consideration. ‘The lot should be 
dry. Slope is useful if it is downward towards the rear, 
because it permits back basement doors to open at grade, 
but difficulty is presented by a lot that is low in front. 
A northern exposure is usually preferable, and attractive 
surroundings are advantageous. 

The future of the land should be considered in relation 
to the city plan and directions of community expansion. 
Land that will increase in value and become accessible to 
a larger portion of the population is to be desired. Of 


300 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


course, land value is only indirectly important if use of 
public land is obtained. 

Many museums are in parks, and this location seems 
to be gaining in favor. In many instances park property 
is centrally or conveniently located, attractive and open, 
free of fire hazards and relatively devoid of nuisances. It 
offers exactly the atmosphere of recreation and relaxation 
that a museum needs, and, furthermore, it may offer the 
only opportunity for use of public land. However, 
physical attractions should never outweigh marked ad- 
vantages of location. A museum exists primarily for use. 

A museum building should not be an annex to a library, 
a town hall or any other building. Experience has dem- 
onstrated amply that such an arrangement leads to 
difficulties. 


REFERENCES— 


The following references also cover questions treated in suc- 
ceeding chapters on building. The first two titles have useful 
bibliographies. 


EastTMan, W. R. The library buildings. Chicago, American 
Library Association, 1918, 18 pp. 

HADLEY, CHALMERS. Library buildings. Chicago, American 
Library Association, 1924, 154 pp. 


Notes on the erection of library buildings. Carnegie Cor- 
poration of New York, 4 pp. 


XLIX 
SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS 


For guidance in the planning of small museum build- 
ings, there is little to be gained by study of examples. 
Only a few small buildings have been constructed, and 
none of them are generalized in plan. However, there is 
ample background of experience to draw upon. Certain 
principles of museum construction have emerged from a 
century and a half of practice, and they are now well 
defined. There is a further fund of data to be drawn 
from the hundreds of small library buildings that dot the 
country. They are planned for uses that are compar- 
able to those of museums, and they have been designed in 
the light of lessons learned from the same public scrutiny 
which museums must endure. The library movement 
is decades in the lead, and museums may profit by the 
long experience. 

Many different plans might be devised in application 
of exactly the same principles. There is no one best way 
for all museums or even for all small museums. Therefore 
a stereotyped plan need never be adopted. Each museum 
has its peculiarities of organization, work and outlook, and 
each reflects the character of its own community. These 
traits, together with physical conditions and the amount 
of funds available, should individualize the planning for 
each institution. There need be little sympathy for a 
stock plan but there should be firm insistence upon a 
plan that is founded on stock principles. 


PRINCIPLES OF MUSEUM PLANNING 


Some years ago the American Library Association 
adopted a code of rules to guide in library planning, and 
301 


302 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


most of its dictates are applicable to museum buildings 
either as they stand or in adaptation. Revamped for 
present purposes, the code might stand as follows: 


Every museum building should be planned for the 
kinds of work to be done and the materials to be accom- 
modated, both of which depend in part upon the char- 
acter of the community to be served. 

Plans should provide for future growth and develop- 
ment. 

The interior arrangement should be planned before 
the exterior is considered. 

The arrangement should be such that the building 
can be administered economically, and no convenience 
of arrangement should be sacrificed for architectural 
effect. 

Public rooms should be planned for supervision by 
the fewest possible attendants and for free motion and 
proper routing of visitors. 

Exhibition rooms should be as near to the main en- 
trance as is practicable. 

Offices and working rooms should be cone from 
the entrance without passage through exhibition 
rooms.’ 

The lecture hall should have a separate entrance so 
that its use may be independent of museum hours. 

The architectural treatment and decoration of exhi- 
bition rooms should be subordinated to the exhibits 
which they contain. 

Flights of stairs should be straight, not circular. 


Lighting and shelf arrangement in libraries are rela- 
tively simple matters and are covered, therefore, in the 


t This may be partly overruled in small museums by considerations 
which remain to be discussed. 


SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS 303 


library code, but museum lighting is too mooted and 
involved a question to be reduced to simple general terms, 
and museum exhibition cases should not be fixed equip- 
ment of the building, as are library shelves. Hence these 
subjects are not considered at this point. 


ROOMS AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT 


The number, character and arrangement of rooms in a 
museum building, are dependent largely upon the size of 
the museum staff. But whatever plan may be adopted, 
the major space division is between public and staff uses. 

Public rooms are of two categories, with respect to their 
administration: 


1. Rooms which require continuous supervision: 


Exhibition room(s) 
Reading room 
Book stacks 


These should be arranged for economy of over- 
sight. The number of exhibition rooms may well 
correspond to the number of main branches of 
exhibits, but in a small museum a single room 
may be divided by cases. Partitions are to be 
avoided since they interfere with rearrangements 
and make supervision difficult. Ina small build- 
ing, also, the book stacks may be housed in the 
reading room; the two combined are referred to 
hereafter as the library. 


2. Rooms which are supervised as a matter of course 
whenever they are used: 


Lecture hall 
Classroom (s) 
Clubroom(s) 


304 


MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


These may be isolated from the other public 
spaces. Classrooms and clubrooms may all 
reduce to a single room in a small building. 


Staff rooms may also be referred to two categories on 


the 


basis of the sort of work that is done in 
them. 


Rooms for professional work: 


Director’s office 
Curators’ room(s) 
Study collection room(s) 


Although it is desirable to have these rooms 
removed from parts of the building frequented by 
the public, this is not entirely practicable if the 
staff is so small that persons who carry on the pro- 
fessional work must watch visitors as well. In 


the case of a very small museum having only one 


person regularly in attendance, the director’s 
office must be located at a point from which the 
exhibition room and library can be seen, and 
all of the rooms enumerated above may advan- 
tageously be thrown into one area, or director's 
room. However, space for the study collections 
should not be obliterated in the consolidation. 


Rooms for non-professional work: 


Shop 

Receiving room 
Storage 

Boiler room 


These rooms should be inaccessible to the public, 
and they may be isolated more or less from other 
staff rooms. 


- . ‘ : ‘ 
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a, ee re ‘ 


SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS 305 


To sum up—every small museum needs at least the 
following rooms: 


PUBLIC ROOMS 


Group I Group II 
Exhibition room Lecture hall 
Library Classroom 


STAFF ROOMS 


Group III Group IV 
Director’s room—with space Shop 
for study collections Receiving room 
Storage 


Boiler room 


Groups I and III must be closely associated in a small 
building; Groups II and IV are independent units. In 
addition to these rooms, there should be two toilets. 
They must serve for the staff as well as the public and, 
therefore, should be so located as to be under control. 

A vault is useful for the safekeeping of valuable ob- 
jects. Also a fireproof projection booth should be pro- 
vided for the lecture hall. A janitor’s closet with slop 
sink should not be overlooked; in fact, one on each floor 
is advantageous. 


ARRANGEMENT BY FLOORS 


Arrangement of rooms is governed by requirements for 
their use, and also by the character of the building. Li- 
brary experience seems to show that ‘‘best results for a 
small general library are obtained by adopting the one- 
story and basement rectangular type of building.’’* 

t “By a one-story and basement building is meant a building with the 


basement about four feet below the natural grade, the basement being 
from say 9 to 10 feet and the main floor from say 12 to 15 feet high in the 


306 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


This conclusion is based upon considerations which 
apply equally to small museums, and therefore it is 
reasonable to accept it for present purposes. 

On the principle that exhibition rooms should be as 
near to the main entrance as is practicable, the front 
portion of the first floor is preempted for this use, and 
since rooms of Groups I and III must be together, they 
all must occupy the first floor. In consequence of this 
arrangement rooms of Groups II and IV would naturally 
be allocated to the basement. However, objection is 
sometimes made if children are required to be in the base- 
ment, and even though the point may not be well taken, 
complaint on this score might just as well be made impos- 
sible by planning for an upstairs classroom. ‘The chief 
drawback to a basement shop is that difficulty may be 
encountered in getting large objects to the exhibition 
floor, but this can be overcome by running them outdoors, 
around and in again by the front entrance. Large doors 
are exceedingly important. 

Toilet rooms are usually located in the basement. 

To sum up again—a practical arrangement by floors is 
as follows: 


First Floor Basement 
Exhibition room Lecture hall 
Library Shop 
Director’s room—with space Receiving room 

for study collections Storage } 
Classroom _ Boiler room 


Toilet rooms 


clear. Plans have at times been submitted for ‘one-story and basement’ 
buildings, which differed from two-story buildings only by having stair to 
the upper floor outside instead of inside!’"—Notes on the Erection of 
Library Buildings. Carnegie Corporation of New York. 


~ SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS 307 


The placement of stairs is dependent upon the size of 
building. In a small building, requirements of the staff 
conflict somewhat with convenience of the public, and the 
requirements must take precedence. Therefore, the 
stairway should descend from the staff rooms, but it 
should be easily accessible from the exhibition room for 
occasional use by visitors. In a larger building, a second 
stairway should descend from the public area—preferably 
from the vestibule. 


EXPANSION 


_ Funds for building are usually insufficient for immedi- 
ate needs, not to mention future ones, but all anticipated 
needs should be provided foron paper. During the early 
years of a museum’s career a building of adequate size is 
not as important as a comprehensive and far-sighted 
plan. Features which any scheme of expansion should 
possess are the following: 


Small beginning 

Permanence of each part that is built 

Possibility of making several successive additions 
Flexibility in sequence of these additions 
Distribution of more costly construction 
Functional completeness at each stage 

Good appearance at each stage if practicable 


ee whi aoe 


= 


Permanence of parts that are built and functional com- 
pleteness at each stage are dependent largely upon interior 
arrangement. Appearance is principally a question of 
architectural treatment, although a building which pre- 
sents one of its longer sides to the street at each stage is 
much easier for the architect to deal with than a narrow 
deep one. 

The two most obvious alternative plans for expansion 


308 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


are to start with a wide but shallow unit and add at the 
rear, or to start with a narrow but deep unit and add lat- 
erally. These possibilities are shown in Plate 25. Method 
A throws all'the more expensive construction into the 
first stage; method B, distributes this load. From the 
standpoint of appearance, the former plan is the better. 
However both methods start rather too ambitiously. 
A combination of the two, shown as C, overcomes this 
disadvantage, increases the number of possible additions 
and the flexibility of procedure, distributes cost of the 
facade and from the outset presents a long side of the 
building to the street. If the site is a corner lot, other 
arrangements are possible as shown at D and E. 

Although only a portion of the larger building, the first 
small unit may be quite complete within itself so far as. 
function and appearance are concerned. By prearrange- 
ment of a sequence of uses for certain rooms, a building 
may be made at every stage of its growth to accommodate 
all the various activities that it houses rather than to be 
either a makeshift during early years or an outgrown 
home after its first stage has been passed. 


LIGHTING 


On the subject of museum lighting opinions differ. 
There is one school that asks to have all natural light 
shut out of exhibition rooms because it fades exhibits 
and also because shifting rays of the sun are difficult to 
cope with, exhibits do not show to advantage when the 
light is dull, and windows waste useful wall space and 
admit dust. Others want the cheerfulness of natural 
light and breeze at whatever loss of technical advantages. 
Most museums compromise by using natural light, con- 
trolled by shades and supplemented when necessary by 
artificial light. By placing windows high, wall space is 


PLATE 25 


_ 


(L44 
A 


MODES OF ENLARGING A BUILDING. 


SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS 309 


conserved for exhibits, and, although views and breezes 
are sacrificed, there is some cheerfulness and air. For 
small buildings this middle course is best because, in the 
absence of a ventilation plant, windows are essential. 

Skylights are luxuries. They add to building costs and 
are expensive to maintain because they trap dust and 
snow. They tend to leak also and are hot. 

For general purposes, the best lighting is afforded by 
a row of windows immediately below the ceiling along 
each of the longer walls.* The size of openings must be 
determined by the size of room, but the sills should be at 
least 10 feet from the floor to prevent light from glaring 
into eyes directed at the wall below. The windows should 
reach to the ceiling, the height of which is fixed by the size 
of room and the area of light openings required. The 
minimum height is about 13 feet. 

Windows which tilt inward at the top on bottom hinges 
are to be preferred to ones that hang, slide or pivot, 
because screens and shades are easily adjusted to windows 
of this type. There should be a rod attachment to con- 
trol the sash. If dust is a serious nuisance windows may 
be kept closed as much as possible. Light is regulated 
by shades which roll at the bottom and pull upward. 
This gives some control of direct sunlight—the worst 
cause of fading and glare. Opaque shades are better than 
translucent ones because they do not change the quality 
of light and they may be used to shut out all light from 
one side or the other. If shades are double surfaced— 
light inside and dark outside—their reflecting inner sur- 
faces help to light the room. 

There are many special methods of museum lighting, 


t In some cases, both of the two long walls of an exhibition room are not 
available for windows. This is very likely to be true of the central unit of 
a building, which may constitute the entire structure as first erected. 
The next chapter deals with this special problem. 


310 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


and some of them are excellent, but if the recommended 
scheme is to be modified careful study should be given by 
an experienced person to each specific problem. 

Artificial lighting of exhibition rooms should be indirect, 
as explained further in the chapter on interior and equip- 
ment—page 318. 


ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENT 


The question of architectural treatment is an after- 
consideration which should not be permitted to warp 
the plan. However, in its place it is of great importance. 
“Tt is not enough that a building serves. It must inspire.” 

The structure need not be monumental or of severe 
aspect. ‘To bea source of inspiration it should be inviting 
in appearance. -Cheerful simplicity is more to be desired 
than impressive elaborateness. A librarian has decried 
‘“‘Greek temples and Roman palaces executed in cheap 
brick and poorly mixed concrete” and even though the 
workmanship be good there are reasonable objections to 
such designs for small public buildings of any sort. It is 
generally agreed that the type of architecture should be 
suited to the environment—climate and local tradition. 
By using materials of the region and harmonious designs, 
each section of the country may produce its own type of 
museum building from plans that follow somewhat the 
same general lines for all. 

Construction should be fire-resistive. This sets an 
awkward limit on materials, but safety for collections is 
imperative. Cost of construction is so variable in point 
of time and place, that general estimates have question- 
able value, but even the most modest effort would doubt- 
less cost $15,000 or more. ‘Twice that amount should 
produce a good small building. 


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L 
ADAPTABLE BUILDING PLANS 


THE principles discussed in the foregoing chapter to- 
gether with conditions that characterize any particular 
building problem—conditions such as nature of site, 
funds available, and staff, activities, collections and ex- 
hibits to be housed—prescribe the general lines of a build- 
ing. For each combination of circumstances the solution 
or the range of possible solutions is different, and within 
the limits of any one plan there are ample opportunities 
for expression of individuality. Therefore it is improbable 
that even the most general and rigid observance of correct 
principles in planning would lead to dull uniformity among 
buildings. 

In this chapter plans are worked out for a suppositious 
small museum. Growth is indicated, stage by stage, 
up to the point where the building ceases to be small. 
In the initial stage, the building is appropriate for a small 
town; in the final one, it is suitable for a city of perhaps 
100,000 inhabitants. The ways in which this hypothet- 
ical institution meets its building needs should be help- 
ful to any museum that has similar problems. 


THE CONDITIONS 


Let it be supposed that the museum of a certain small 
community is housed in temporary quarters, with one em- 
ployee—the director. It has fair collections and exhibits 
in history and a nucleus of exhibits in science. Art is to 
be treated in due course. Educational work is being car- 
ried oninasmall way. The town has provided an ample 
site, and a fund of $15,000 has been granted for building. 

311 


312 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


The community is growing rapidly and the museum is 
expected to keep pace. 

The immediate problem is to plan a building that will 
serve present needs and that may be enlarged in course 
of time. 


THE FIRST STAGE 


For reasons already given it is decided to begin with a 
small central unit to which additions may be made at 
the sides and rear. A one-story and basement type of 
building is selected, and rooms are to be located as fol- 
lows. 


First Floor Basement 
Exhibition room Lecture hall 
Director’s room—with space Shop 

for study collections Receiving room 
Library storage 
Classroom Boiler room 


Toilet rooms 


On the first, or main, floor about one half the entire area 
is set apart for the exhibition room. ‘The portion nearest 
the front entrance is most desirable for this purpose in 
order that the majority of visitors may come at once 
upon what they are seeking, and so that all who enter 
the building may receive a pleasing first impression. A 
single room must suffice at first, but divisions may be 
made by use of exhibition furniture. An interior vesti- 
bule is not necessary, but if one is provided it should not 
encroach unnecessarily upon exhibition space. Directly 
off the exhibition room and commanding a fairly com- 
plete view of it should be the office. The rear of the 
office may be used for study collections—ample space 


PLATE 27 


LECTURE HALL STORAGE 


GENERAL PLAN 


G D 


BASEMENT PLANS FOR SMALL MUSEUM BUILDINGS. 


ADAPTABLE BUILDING PLANS 313 


being set aside for this important purpose. ‘The library 
and a somewhat smaller classroom should each be adja- 
cent to the office. A stairway from the office to the 
basement is required, and the more accessible it is from 
the exhibition room, the better. ‘These functional require- 
ments are shown diagrammatically in the general plan of 
Plate 26. 

The other plans of Plate 26 show a few of the many 
possible arrangements. Plan C is commendable if no 
addition is ever to be made to the entrance side of the 
building. 

In the basement a central hallway is inevitable. A 
separate outside entrance, provided for the lecture hall, 
may enter upon the hallway but this requires that all 
basement rooms as well as the stairway to the first floor 
have doors with locks. The basement entrance is placed 
at the side of the building even though a lateral addition 
on the same side is in prospect; another entrance will be 
made when the building is enlarged. ‘The receiving room 
requires a back entrance which may be at ground level if 
the land slopes away to the rear. The shop and heat- 
ing plant should both be adjacent to the receiving room 
and should have direct access to the back entrance. 
Movement of large objects between the outside, the receiv- 
ing room, the shop and the storage is provided for by 
large doors and straight passages. The areas which may 
be allocated advantageously to the various rooms are 
relatively about as shown in the general plan of Plate 27. 

Plan A is selected after considering various possible lay- 
outs, including those shown in the other plans of Plate 
27, each of which is designed to go with the respective 
first-floor plan of Plate 26. Plates 28 and 29 give the 
two floor-plans in greater detail and with minor additions 
such as a vault and janitor’s closet. The Frontispiece 
shows an appropriate design for the facade. 


314. MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


SECOND STAGE 


Let it be assumed that growth of the suppositious small 
museum is to be constant and well balanced, and that 
moderate building funds are to become available from time 
to time to meet the most pressing needs. 

It is likely that the first congestion will be felt when 
history outgrows its exhibition space. Addition of a 
right. wing as shown in Plate 30-A would serve this need 
without disturbing rooms on the first floor or any of the 
basement rooms except the shop, which is temporarily 
reduced in area. The new exhibition space on the first 
floor might be assigned to history, giving it ample accom- 
modations and incidentally doubling the room available 
for science, and perhaps also providing for the first art 
exhibitions. Downstairs the new space might be utilized 
either for storage or for overflow of some upstairs activ- 
ity. As already pointed out, the lower floor is not alto- 
gether suitable for bookstacks, study collections or a 
room for children’s work, but in a dry region or on a site 
which slopes downward under this wing, any work what- 
ever may be carried on in the basement. 


THIRD STAGE 


It is fair to assume that the next need for space will 
be on the part of the study collections, and that, at about 
the same time, the library will be seriously congested. 
Hither of these needs would be met after a fashion by use 
of the basement of the right wing, but sooner or later 
more convenient quarters would be needed. A simple 
plan is shown in Plate 30-B. The new section, being at 
the rear, may be of relatively cheap construction. It 
might have been built at the outset except that architec- 
turally it would have been undesirable before the wide 
frontage was acquired. On the main floor, both the 


PLATE 28 


“SPACE FORSTUDY- 
*COLLECTIONS- 


| ‘CLASS ROOM- 


‘DIRECTOR'S ROOM: 


perv eset) jhOtN he, Oe vite 


Me ed cei O50 


PLAN OF PLATE 26A IN DETAIL. 


~~ 


ADAPTABLE BUILDING PLANS 315 


study collections and the library are provided for, and in 
the basement the shop is more than compensated for 
space lost previously. The receiving room is enlarged 
and the boiler room is given an addition which may be 
requisite. Oneof the toilets is relocated to afford light and 
air. 


FOURTH STAGE 


Either the science or art exhibits, or educational work 
may reasonably be expected to make the next demand. 
In either event the remedy would be the same—a new 
wing. If the plan of Plate 30-C is followed a new lecture 
hall, probably much needed by this time, is provided in 
the basement. This relieves crowding of the educational 
work since it liberates the old lecture hall for use as a 
large classroom or several small ones. ‘The intention of 
keeping the children out of the basement is violated by 
this arrangement, but there may be no help for it. 

The possibilities for further additions are limited only 
by funds and land. Exhibition sections might run back- 
ward from the two wings, or working spaces might be 
added laterally to the rear of the central section. How- 
ever, the building would then cease to be small and need 
not be considered here. 

Plate 31 shows a design for the building with the 
additions that have been described. 

The foregoing building project is outlined on the fair 
assumption that strict economy is important. ‘Therefore 
reconstruction is avoided and consequently some of the 
arrangements are far from ideal. If extensive altera- 
tions are to be made as new parts are added, somewhat 
different arrangements may be planned. As the building 
grows the staff must increase. When the director is no 
longer without help, some of the features shown in Plates 
26 and 27 lose their appropriateness, and if they are 


316 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


retained in the enlarged structure, they are essentially 
vestiges. ‘The cramped rear wing is an example; to ex- 
tend it farther would wipe out the back entrance and dis- 
lodge the heating plant. The back stairway, the loca- 
tion of the office, the conjunction of office and study col- 
lections, the single office door—each of these, similarly, is 
an outgrown feature which a fairly obvious and simple 
alteration can remove. 

The two lateral wings present the lighting problem in 
its simplest form. In each wing the two long sides are 
unobstructed and each may be pierced with a row of 
high windows. If the building faces north or south, the 
southerly windows may have curtains drawn when the 
sun is shining, especially in winter when the sun is low. 

The central unit is more difficult to light because its 
front wall is broken by the entrance and its rear wall is 
entirely obstructed. However, the front wall may bear 
all but the middle portion of the usual row of high win- 
dows, and, if the architectural scheme permits, the open- 
ings may be carried over the front entrance by a sort of 
high transom. ‘This arrangement should give sufficient 
light, but if the conventional two-side lighting scheme 
is desired, the ceiling height of the office and adjacent 
rooms may be stepped down enough to give window room 
on the riser. Additional windows at the ends would pro- 
duce glare and are not to be recommended even as tem- 
porary features before wings are added. 


PLATE 29 


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PLAN OF PLATE. 27A IN DETAIL. 


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INTERIOR AND EQUIPMENT 


THE interior finish of a museum follows lines that would 
be adopted for any fire-resistive building—except in the 
exhibition rooms, which present special problems. 


EXHIBITION WALLS 


The walls of some exhibition rooms are left in the rough 
sand finish, but as a rule they are either plastered and 
tinted, or sheathed and covered with coarse cloth. Cloth 
is most used, partly because of its pleasing appearance and 
partly because it is not greatly damaged by nails and 
screws. Walls finished in this way should be sheathed in 
wood, covered with asbestos paper and surfaced with 
the cloth. Burlap may be selected, but certain of the 
coarse wall fabrics on the market arebetter. Colored 
material fades; the natural straw-color is best, but even 
this should be tested for fading by exposing a sample in 
the sunlight with a portion covered. A coat of warm 
stain, such as cherry, on the wall under the fabric shows 
through just enough to give vibration to the otherwise 
flat tone. | 

For walls which are not required to support objects, 
paint on plaster is satisfactory, and this finish has greater 
possibilities of attractiveness than any other. Excellent 
_ results are obtainable by using a coarse spatter of one 
color and a fine stipple of another over a flat ground coat. 
Water color is satisfactory on rough plaster, but on a 
smooth wall a flat lead-and-oil paint should be used. 

Whatever the finish, a color that does not absorb 
much light is to be preferred. Buffs, grays, blue-grays 

317 


v 


318 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


and light blue tones are most pleasing. Ceilings should 
be lighter than walls. In trying out a color it is safest to 
use a fairly large wall area as a sample, since a small patch 
is deceptive. Appearance of spaciousness is obtainable by 
harmonious treatment of room-surfaces. 

Every wall should be provided with a picture molding, 
since even burlap is cut somewhat by nail-holes, and its 
comparative durability ought not to be abused. The 
best molding for museums is that designed and manu- 
factured by James F. McCabe of the Art Institute of 
Chicago. ‘The McCabe picture molding is a strip, shaped 
in cross section like a G, which is, set into the wall flush 
with its surface. Hooks for use with it are shaped so 
that they cannot disengage and fall accidentally. 

Wall area for picture hanging may be increased by use 
of temporary partitions, set off from a wall at intervals 
to make a series of shallow alcoves. Excellent for this 
purpose is a 2 by 4 inch joist frame covered with 7% inch 
pine trim and finished to match the wall. The effect of a 
cornice may be produced by a top-piece overhanging per- 
haps an inch on both sides and at the free end. A 4% 
inch baseboard of perhaps 10 inch height also adds to the 
appearance. These partitions may be 7 feet high to 
match wall cases and floor screens. 


FLOORS 


Wooden floors are taboo because of the fire risk. Ce- 
ment floors covered with battleship linoleum are best. 
If linoleum is not put down at once, the cement surface 


may be painted with gray floor enamel to lay the dust. 


ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 


For exhibition rooms indirect light is best since reflec- 
tions are troublesome with direct or semi-indirect illumina- 


PLATE 30 


BASEMENT 


PN 


A-FIRST FLOOR 


BASEMENT 


B- 


B-FIRST FLOOR 


C ~ BASEMENT 


C-FIRST FLOOR 


OF BUILDING EXPANSION. 


INTERIOR AND EQUIPMENT 319 


tion. Units should be placed with a view to securing 
_ uniform distribution of light throughout a room, and not 
with reference to a projected plan of exhibits. Necessa- 
rily the layout of cases is ever-changing. 

For work rooms, semi-direct light may be preferred in 
order to give greater intensity of illumination. If a 
museum installs its own power-generator, the lecture 
hall should be on city current so that the power plant 
need not be operated at night. 


HEATING 


From the standpoint of constancy of temperature hot 
water heating is best, but the excess of radiation which it 
requires makes it impracticable for museums. Hot air 
heating is too dirty to be considered. Steam heating 
therefore is usually employed. 

In exhibition rooms, radiators should be recessed in 
the wall and provided with warm air ducts which open 
above the exhibition level. Another possibility is in- 
direct heating—air being carried from pipes on the base- 
ment ceiling through warm air ducts to exhibition rooms. 
The best system—which can be employed only where 
there is an air-conditioning plant—is one which warms 
incoming air in the ventilating chamber and so dispenses 
with radiators altogether. 


AIR CONDITIONING 


There is no question about the desirability of equip- 
ment which ventilates with washed and uniformly moist- 
ened and warmed air. Also there is no doubt that such a 
plant is essential for a museum that has collections of 
great value. However, for most small museums, the 
initial cost of such an installation and the various ex- 
penses of upkeep are prohibitive. 


320 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


FIRE PROTECTION 


There are few fire hazards in exhibition rooms, the 
principal risks being in storages, shops and work rooms. 
Such rooms are on the ground floor of most museums, ; and 
therefore sprinkler protection may be provided. readily. 

The heating plant should be housed in a fire-resistive 
room, and means should be provided for cutting off the 
electric current at night. 


PLUMBING 


Piping, as well as wiring, should be accessible for re- 
pairs, not sealed into walls. Valves and switchboards 
should be placed where they may be reached easily but 
where visitors are not able to tamper with them. 

Hadley suggests that the boiler be connected with the 
sewer drain-pipe so that it can be blown out for cleaning, 
and that a stop-valve be installed in the water line so that 
the boiler may be shut off without taking water from the 
entire building. The sink in the workshop requires a 
special trap. Otherwise debris and plaster cause fre- 
quent stoppages and constant annoyance and expense. 

Area-ways of basement doors should be adequately 
drained to the sewer to prevent floods. 


REFERENCES— 

Drawings and measurements of furniture used by the Museum. 
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1923, 40 pp. 

EASTMAN, LinpA A. Furniture, fixtures and equipment. 
Chicago, American Library Association, 1916, 16 pp. 

HADLEY, CHALMERS. Library buildings. Chicago, Ameri- 
can Library Association, 1924, 154 pp. 

Harpy, Epwarp R. Museum fire prevention. Quarterly 
National Fire Protection Association, 1925, 19: 55-6l. 

JACKSON, MARGARET T. The treatment of walls in galleries 
for paintings. Proc. Amer. Ass’n Museums, I915, 9: 29-34. 


PLATE 31 


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) DESIGN FOR THE FINISHED BUILDING. 


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Lil 
THE OUTLOOK 


WuatT the future will witness no one can foretell, but 
grounds for speculation are offered by observable trends 
in the museum movement and by comparable develop- 
ments in other fields. One thing is sure: museums will 
abide. ‘The human impulses from which museum-making 
springs are widespread and deep-rooted. 

Small museums are entering upon a road to dignity and 
importance, but they can progress only so far as the wis- 
dom and the vision of trustees will lead them. There 
are a great many capable and devoted trustees of mu- 
seums, but unfortunately there are also some indifferent 
and ill-informed ones. Public opinion of museums is 
changing rapidly and when trustees as a class come to a 
full realization of their opportunities, the next milestone 
in museum history will be passed. 

As understanding of museum purpose spreads, the pro- 
fessional character of museum work will be recognized 
more generally. When a larger field develops, directors 
will be needed for many small museums, but relatively 
few will be found if conditions stand as they are today. 
But doubtless they will change. Efforts have already been 
set afoot among organized museums to increase facilities 
for professional training, and this is but part of a still 
larger plan which promises ultimately to create standards 
and accredited training schools for the profession as a 
whole. 

Quite as important as any change that may come about 
in human factors, is evolution of financial elements. 
Two of the major sources of museum support—large 
private contributions and public appropriations—seem 

323 


324 MANUAL FOR SMALL MUSEUMS 


to hold possibilities of important development. The 
library movement has received much of its momentum 
from contributions of an educational foundation. If 
museums should ever be the objects of similar benefac- 
tion, there would surely ensue a rapid expansion of mu- 
seum service. ‘This would not necessarily require exten- 
sive outlay, since quite modest subsidy should enable 
any small museum to employ a trained director for five 
years, and in this time to establish its activities and 
entrench itself financially. However, public support 
must be regarded as the enduring financial bulwark of 
museums. The key to this source of support is state 
law. Before adequate appropriations can be expected 
from authorities of the city and the county, state legisla- 
tion authorizing them must be in force. At the present 
time eleven states have laws relating to museums, but 
only five make suitable provisions. The future will 
doubtless bring action in the legislatures, and in conse- 
quence of legal recognition, museums should have 
smoother paths. 

But even more than management and money is needed. 
_Cooperation—real. cooperation—is required to complete 
‘a new regime. In time museums may abandon the 
secretiveness and the spirit of competition which so limit 
them. ‘Then the machinery of joint action can be set in 
motion and cooperative staff and cooperative work will 
be in usual course. Then the post of consulting director 
may be acommon one. Then state and regional confer- 
ences will develop and the members of each local group 
will find new power. Then small museums will be more 
effective, and large ones—sharing generously in the inter- 
course—will reap rewards in leadership and in extension 
of their fields of usefulness. 

The ultimate aim is to give museum advantages to 
every individual, wherever he may live, but this will 


THE OUTLOOK 325 


require some further evolution of working methods. The 
immediate objective is to have a museum in every town. 
While small museums are thus establishing themselves, 
large museums may show comparable growth by develop- 
ing branches to render adequate service to their great 
communities. ‘Then with the cities and towns provided 
for, museum influence may begin to creep into the 
ramifications of rural life in America. 


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APPENDICES 


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APPENDIX A 
CHARTER 


A MUSEUM may be incorporated either under a general stat- 
ute of the state or by special act of legislature. In either 
case the instrument of incorporation is called a charter. 

Many charters contain provisions which might better be 
made by constitution. In many such cases, there is no con- 
stitution—rules of the corporation being set forth entirely in 
charter and by-laws. Although this is common practice, it 
involves certain practical difficulties. The charter, being 
cumbersome to amend, should be a stable document embody- 
ing only the basic data required by law. The constitution, 
being amendable by the corporation without legal formality, 
is a convenient instrument for stating matters which may have 
to be changed from time to time. The by-laws, which are 
employed to specify details, are never dispensed with. 

The charter is a legal instrument the constitution and by- 
laws are administrative. Distinctions between constitution 
and by-laws remain to be discussed more fully in the follow- 
ing appendix. 


CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION 


A charter that is framed in accordance with a general 
statute is usually termed a certificate of incorporation. In 
its articles, the incorporators—who usually are to be the first 
trustees—certify to the character and purposes of the institu- 
tion. The following suppositious articles are believed to 
embody the best features of many examples which have been 
studied. If circumstances under which the corporation is 
formed have special significance, they may be set forth in a 
preamble. 


ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION 


We, the undersigned, desiring to form a corporation not 
for profit, do hereby certify as follows: 
329 


330 APPENDIX A 


1. The name of the corporation shall be .. . 

2. The purpose of the corporation shall be to increase 
and diffuse knowledge and appreciation of history, art and 
science, and to that end to establish and maintain in the 
city of . . . a museum and reference library, to collect 
and preserve objects of historic, artistic and scientific 
interest, to protect historic sites, works of art, scenic 
places and wild life from needless destruction, to provide 
facilities for research and publication, and to offer popular 
instruction and opportunities for esthetic enjoyment. 

3. The corporation shall be located and its principal 
business shall be conducted in the city of .. . 

4. The corporation shall have no capital stock. 

5. All business and property of the corporation shall 
be managed by a board of nine elective trustees and two 
ex-officio trustees. 

6. ‘The subscribers hereto shall be elective trustees of the 
corporation for the first year, and shall have power to make 
and give effect to a Constitution and By-Laws of the cor- 
poration. The Constitution shall designate the ex-officio 
trustees. | 

7. The corporation may take and hold by gift, devise, 
bequest, purchase or lease, either absolute or in trust, any 
real or personal estate, necessary or proper for the purposes 
of its incorporation. 

In WITNESS WHEREOF, We have hereunto set our hands 


this day of » 19 
(Signatures) 
STATE OF ' 
SS.: 
County of 
On this day of 19 , before me 


personally appeared ... (names) ..., to me known to 
be the persons described in and who executed the foregoing 
certificate of incorporation, and severally duly acknowl- 
edged to me that they executed the same. 


(Seal) (Signature of notary) 


APPENDIX A 331 


Article 7 is not essential since its provisions are made by 
law, but the number of charters in which it is included seems 
to indicate that it is deemed to have practical usefulness. 
Such other legal rights and duties of the corporation as to sue 
and be sued, to have and alter a seal, etc., are covered in the 
statute and are not usually rehearsed in the charter. Methods 
of management, qualifications, terms of office and mode of 
election of trustees and their powers and duties are subjects 
for the constitution and by-laws. 

Corporation laws are somewhat different in each state. 
Therefore in putting these suggestions to use, legal advice 
should be sought, in order that the articles may be made 
to conform exactly to requirements. 


ACT OF INCORPORATION 


Relatively few museums are incorporated by special act of 
legislature, and it is felt that few need be so incorporated. If 
general statutes, do not provide adequately for museums, then 
efforts should be made to change the laws in the interest of all 
the museums in the state, rather than to seek special privilege 
for a single institution. 

If, however, a special charter is secured, it should authorize 
support by the city and the county. For material upon which 
to base a bill, reference may be made to Chapter XIV and 
Appendix C of this Manual, as well as to the charter of the 
Staten Island Institute of Arts and Sciences (Chap. 850 of 
the Laws of New York, 1911). 


APPENDIX B 
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 


THE constitution and by-laws of a corporation are the rules 
by which it is governed. The rules of different museums em- 
body a variety of provisions and wordings but a framework of 
accepted practice is common to most of them. The follow- 
ing suggested forms are based upon a comparative study of 
many examples and are drawn up with special reference to 
the needs of small museums. In the body of this book men- 
tion is made of various practical considerations which have 
governed the drafting of these paragraphs, and which should 
be kept in mind if they are to be revamped. The chapters on 
organization, the board of trustees, the membership and per- 
sonnel relations are especially important in this connection. 

There is a radical difference between a constitution and 
by-laws—both being necessary. A constitution is intended 
to cover fundamental matters of principle; by-laws to add 
supplementary details. Since a constitution is basic, its 
integrity is safeguarded by the requirements that due notice 
be given and that a two-thirds vote at a meeting of the cor- 
poration be cast to amend it. However, by-laws are working 
rules that may require modification on short notice, and there- 
fore they are amendable by a majority vote at any meeting of 
the board of trustees. Since new by-laws may be added by 
the trustees at any time, only the most necessary ones need 
be drafted at the outset. 

Both constitution and by-laws should be as brief as practi- 
cable. Involved and prolix sections only add to the difficulty 
of use and amendment and the cost of printing. Matters of 
routine are better regulated by the board through rulings 
recorded on the minutes, than made a part of the formal rules. 

It is convenient to divide the text into numbered paragraphs, 
called sections, and to bring together sections on related sub- 


332 


APPENDIX B 333 


jects into numbered major divisions. By using two different 
terms, article and chapter for these major divisions of the con- 
stitution and by-laws respectively, much confusion may be 
avoided. | 


SUMMARY 
CONSTITUTION 


Article I. Name 
. i Obiect: 
‘¢ III. Membership. 
“IV. Management. 
iy V. Meetings. 
“VI. Nominations and Elections. 
“ VIT. Amendments. 


BY-LAWS 


Chapter I. Dues and Contributions. 
3 II. Duties of Officers. 
“_TII. Duties of Committees. 
af IV. Duties of Director. 

a V. Financial Methods. 
. VI. Amendments. 


CONSTITUTION 
ARTICLE I 
NAME 
Section 1. The name of this Corporation shall be... 
ARTICLE II 
OBJECT 


Section 1. The object of the Museum shall be to increase and 
diffuse knowledge and appreciation of history, art and 
science. 


334 APPENDIX B 


ARTICLE III 


MEMBERSHIP 


Section 1. The membership of the Museum shall be composed 
of Active Members, Contributing Members, Sustaining 
Members, Donors, Patrons and Honorary Members. 


Section 2. Active Members, Contributing Members, Sustain- 
ing Members, Donors and Patrons shall be persons elected 
to membership in consideration of dues, contributions or 
donations. 


Section 3. Honorary Members shall be persons elected to 
membership in consideration of extraordinary service to 
the Museum. 


ARTICLE IV 


MANAGEMENT 


Section i. All business and property of the Museum shall be 
managed by a Board of Trustees composed of nine Trus- 
tees to be elected by the membership of the Museum, together 
with the Mayor and the Superintendent of Schools of 

. who shall be ex-officio Trustees. 

Section 2. The nine elective Trustees shall each serve for 
three years or until a successor is elected, except that of 
the first Trustees three shall be elected to serve for one 
year, three for two years and three for three years. There- 
after all Trustees shall be elected for terms of three years, 
and three shall be elected and three retired each year. 

Section 3. A President, a Vice-President, a Secretary and a 
Treasurer shall be elected annually by the Board of Trustees, 
and shall each serve for one year or until a successor is 
elected. These officers shall also be the officers of the 
Museum. 

Section 4. Vacancy in any office shall be filled for the unex- 
pired term by the Board of Trustees. 

Section 5. No Trustee shall receive comipede e from the 
Museum. 


APPENDIX B 335 


Section 6. There shall be at least two standing committees of 
the Board of Trustees, as follows: an Executive Committee 
and an Accession Committee. 

Section 7. The Executive Committee shall consist of ... 
Trustees serving with the officers. The President and Sec- 
retary shall be its chairman and secretary respectively. 

Section 8. The Accession Committee shall consist of .. . 
Trustees serving with the President and Secretary, who 
shall be its chairman and secretary respectively. 

Section 9. All committees of the Board of Trustees shall be 
appointed by the President and shall cease to exist at the 
call to order of the annual meeting of the Board. 

Section 10. The Board of Trustees may elect a Director, and 
fix his compensation. The Director shall hold office dur- 
ing the pleasure of the Board. 

Section 11. The Board of Trustees or the Executive Commit- 
tee, upon recommendation of the Director may elect Hon- 
orary Curators, who shall serve until the next annual meet- 
ing of the Board. 

Section 12. The Board of Trustees or the Executive Commit- 
tee, upon recommendation of the Director, may elect sal- 
aried Curators, or in the same manner may remove them, 
provided that opportunity be given for a hearing before 
the Executive Committee. 

Section 13. All other employees of the Museum shall be 
appointed and removed by the Director, and any who serve 
under a Curator shall be so appointed or removed only 
upon recommendation of the Curator. 


ARTICLE V 


MBETINGS 


Section zr. The annual meeting of the Museum shall be held 
in January of each year at a time to be determined by the 
Board of Trustees, or at any time thereafter to which the 
said meeting may be adjourned. : 


336 APPENDIX B 


Section 2. A special meeting of the Museum shall be called 
at any time by the Secretary upon order of the President, or 
upon written request of ten Members. No business may 
be transacted at. a special meeting that is not specified in 
the call for the meeting. 


Seciton 3. Notice of meetings of the Museum shall be mailed 
by the Secretary to all Members at least ten days prior to 
the date of the meeting. 


Section 4. At meetings of the Museum ten Members shall 
constitute a quorum. 


Section 5. Stated meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be 
held in January, April, July and October of each year. 
The stated meeting in January of each year shall be held 
after the annual meeting of the Museum and shall be 
regarded as the annual meeting of the Board. 

Section 6. Special meetings of the Board of Trustees shall 
be called at any time by the Secretary upon order of the 
President, or upon written request of three Trustees. 

Section 7. Reasonable notice of meetings of the Board of 
Trustees shall be given by the Secretary to all Trustees. 


Section 8. At meetings of the Board of Trustees five Trustees 
shall constitute a quorum. . | 


Section 9. Business may be transacted by the written assent 
of a majority of the Trustees, provided th - proposed trans- 
action has been submitted in writing to all the Trustees. 


ARTICLE VI 
NOMINATIONS AND ELECTIONS 


Section 1. Nominations for election to membership in the 
Museum may be made in writing to the Secretary by any 
Member of the Museum and shall be acted upon by the 
Board of Trustees or by a committee of the Board appointed 
for this duty. ‘ 

1 This duty is usually a nominal one so far as memberships contingent 


upon dues are concerned. Honorary members are elected only after care- 
ful consideration. : 


= er ad 


APPENDIX B 327 


Section 2. Nominations for election to the Board of Trus- 
tees shall be made by a committee of . . . Members of the 
Museum appointed by the President, of whom not more 
than . . . shall be Trustees, but any ten Members of the 
Museum may also make nominations. All such nomina- 
tions in writing which reach the Secretary at least twenty- 
one days before the annual meeting of the Museum shall 
be incorporated in the final ticket. Only Members of the 
Museum in good standing shall be eligible for nomination. 


Section 3. Election of Trustees shall be by ballot at the 
annual meeting of the Museum. Each Member of the 
Museum in good standing shall have one vote. In case of 
a tie vote the voting Members present at the annual meet- 
ing shall choose by ballot between the persons involved in 
the tie. The successful candidates shall enter upon duty 
at the adjournment of the meeting at which they are 
elected. 


Voting for trustees by mail may be preferred to balloting 
at the annual meeting, in order to assure active participation 
in the affairs of a museum on the part of a larger number of 
members than would be likely to attend the meeting. To 
provide for this the following two sections may be substituted 
for Section 3: 


Section 3. Theinal ‘ticket of nominations to the Board of 
Trustees shall be printed and one copy mailed to each Mem- 
ber of the Museum who is entitled to vote at least ten days 
before the annual meeting of the Museum. It shall be 
accompanied by an envelope marked Ballot, in which the mem- 
ber shall return it to the Secretary. 


Section 3a. At the annual meeting of the Museum, the 
polls shall be closed, the ballots counted and the results of the 
election announced. In case of a tie vote, the meeting shall 
proceed to choose by ballot between the persons involved in 
the tie. The successful candidates shall enter upon duty at 
the adjournment of said meeting. 


338 APPENDIX B 


Section 4. Any Trustee may be removed at any regular 
meeting of the Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of 
all the Trustees. 

Section 5. Nominations for election to office shall be made 
by a Nominating Committee of the Board of Trustees ap- 
pointed by the President. 

Section 6. Election of officers shall be by ballot at the annual 
meeting of the Board of Trustees. The successful can- 
didates shall enter upon duty at the adjournment of the 
meeting. 


ARTICLE VII 
AMENDMENTS 


Section i. This Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds 
vote of the Members present and qualified to vote at any 
meeting of the Museum, provided that notice of the pur- 
port of the proposed amendments shall have been mailed 
to all Members at least ten days prior to the date of meeting. 


BY-LAWS 
CHAPTER I 


DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS 


Section 1. Theduesof Active Members shall be . . . dollar(s) 
annually, of Contributing Members, . . . dollars annually 
and of Sustaining Members, . . . dollars annually.” 

Section 2. Upon election each Active Member, Contribut- 
ing Member or Sustaining Member shall pay dues for one 
year, except that the initial dues of a Contributing Mem- 
ber or Sustaining Member elected between July 1 and De- 
cember 31 of any year shall be halved. Thereafter full 
dues shall be payable on January 1 of each year. i 

Section 3. Any Member one year in arrears of dues may be 
dropped from membership by the Board of Trustees. 


t See discussion of memberships and dues—page 34. 


APPENDIX B 339 


Section 4. Any person who contributes . . . to the Museum 
in one payment shall be eligible for election as an Active 
Member for life. 


Section 5. Any person who contributes .. . dollars to the 
Museum in one payment shall be eligible for election as a 
Donor. Any person who contributes . . . dollars to the 


Museum in one payment shall be eligible for election as a 
Patron. 


Section 6. Any person shall be eligible for election as a Donor 
or a Patron who shall have given to the Museum books or 
objects for its collections or other property which shall have 
been accepted by the Board of Trustees and valued by the 
Board at twice the amount in money requisite to eligibility 
for election to the same degree. 


CHAPTER II 


DUTIES OF OFFICERS 


Section I. The President shall exercise general supervision of 
the affairs of the Museum, and shall preside at its meetings. 
He shall be chairman, ex-officio, of the Executive Committee 
and the Accession Committee, and a member, ex-officio, of 
all Committees except Nominating Committees. 


Section 2. The Vice-President shall act for the President in 
his absence. 


Section 3. ‘The Secretary shall have charge of official records 
of the Museum except those specifically placed under the 
control of another officer, and shall keep a record of the 
membership of the Museum. He shall issue notices and 
keep minutes of all meetings of the Museum, of the Board 
of Trustees, of the Executive Committee and of the Acces- 
sions Committee, which shall be kept in books belonging to 
the Museum and shall be open to inspection of the Trus- 
tees and shall be subject to call by the Museum. He shall 
have custody of the corporate seal which he shall affix 
and attest as directed by the Board. He shall file any 
reports required by law. 


340 APPENDIX B 


Section 4. The Treasurer shall have custody of all funds and 
securities of the Museum, and shall receive and disburse 
moneys under the direction of the Board of Trustees. He 
shall keep records of the financial condition of the Museum 
and of the financial relations of Members to the Museum, 
and shall make a full report at the annual meeting of the 
financial condition of the Museum and of receipts and dis- 
bursements of the preceding year. The accounts of the 
Treasurer shall be kept in books belonging to the Museum 
which shall be open to inspection of the Trustees and shall 
be subject to call by the Museum. 


CHAPTER III 


DUTIES OF COMMITTEES 


Section r. The Executive Committee shall have control of 
the property of the Museum, and shall have general power 
to conduct the business of the Museum, subject to approval 
of the Board of Trustees. It shall meet regularly each 
month and may hold special meetings on call. Four mem- 
bers of the Committee shall constitute a quorum. 

Section 2. The Accession Committee shall pass upon recom- 
mendations of the Director relating to additions to or 
removals from the collections—whether temporary or per- 
manent. It shall have authority to make commitments 
from funds appropriated by the Board or the Executive 
Committee for purchase of material for the collections. It 
shall meet regularly each month and may hold special meet- 
ings on call. Three members of the Ccmmittee shall 
constitute a quorum. 

Section 3. Any Committee may transact business by the 
written assent of its members. 


CHAPTER IV 
DutTres OF DIRECTOR 


Section 1. The Director shall be the chief administrative 
officer of the Museum. Acting under the authority and 


APPENDIX B 341 


control of the President and the Board of Trustees, he shall 
have direction and control of all operations of the Museum. 
He shall be the official medium of communication between 
the Board or its committees, and the staff. 


Section 2. The Director shall attend all meetings of the 
Museum, of the Board of Trustees, and of all Committees 
except the Nominating Committee, unless excused or other- 
wise ordered by the Board. He shall not be a member of 
the Board. 


Section 3. The Director shall submit to the Board of Trus- 
tees, at the annual meeting, a report reviewing the work of 
the Museum for the previous year. He shall present at 
any regular or special meetings such other reports and 
recommendations as he may deem advisable or as the 
Board may require. 


CHAPTER V 


FINANCIAL METHODS 


Section 1. No pecuniary obligation shall be contracted with- 
out sanction of the Board of Trustees specifically or by 
adoption of a budget. 


Section 2. No bills shall be paid unless approved by the 
Director. 


Section 3. The Treasurer shall be bonded by the Museum 
with two good sureties or in a reliable bonding organization 
in the sum of $... for the faithful performance of his 
duties and the safe keeping of funds of the Museum. 
He shall not deposit funds of the Museum in any name 
except that of the Museum and he shall not invest funds of 
the Museum without authority of the Board of Trustees or 
the Executive Committee. His accounts shall be balanced 
as of December 31 of each year, and audited by a Certified 
Public Accountant or an Auditing Committee of the Board 
of Trustees. 


342 APPENDIX B 


CHAPTER VI 


AMENDMENTS 


Section 1. These By-laws may be amended at any stated 
meeting of the Board of Trustees by a majority vote of the 
Trustees present provided that notice shall have been given 
at the previous stated meeting of the Board. 


APPENDIX C 
CONTRACT WITH LOCAL GOVERNMENT 


MANY museums occupy city-owned buildings located on 
public land. In fact a plan which has come to be looked 
upon as the ideal one is that under which the city erects a 
museum building, financed by bond issue, and leases it to the 
museum corporation without rent and with provision for main- 
tenance. Doubtless there are conditions under which this 
arrangement would not be satisfactory, but for most com- 
munities it is believed to offer a favorable solution of the mu- 
seurm’s building problem and an appropriate investment of 
public capital. However, the advantages of this arrange- 
ment are conditioned by the terms under which it is made. 
Customarily these are defined by contract between the local 
government and the museum. 

The agreement between the Department of Public Parks 
of the City of New York and The American Museum of Nat- 
ural History may be cited as an example which has proven 
satisfactory over along period. Firstly, it grants the museum 
use of a building so long as the terms of contract are observed. 
secondly, it relieves the city of responsibility for damage by 
fire, but commits the city to the making of certain other 
repairs to the building. Thirdly, it assures the museum ex- 
clusive occupancy. Fourthly, it specifies conditions under 
which the public is to be admitted to exhibitions, and gives 
special privileges to teachers. Fifthly, it states that the title 
to the building shall be held always by the city, and the title 
to the museum material therein, by the museum. Sixthly, it 
requires an annual accounting to the city. Seventhly, it 
gives the city police power in the building but places the power 
to appoint and remove museum employees in the hands of the 
museum. Eighthly, it permits the museum to vacate the 
building upon proper notice to the city, and empowers the 
city to dispossess the museum if the latter does not abide by 


343 


344 APPENDIX C 


its contract. Ninthly, it provides for cancellation of the 
agreement by mutual consent. The text of the contract is 
printed here by permission. 


By way of comment, it may be observed that the seventh 


provision is an essential one. The second seems to call 
for some strengthening, since precedent in many cities makes 
the government squarely responsible for all ordinary repair 
of the building and structural equipment. While no provi- 
sion is made for annual appropriations from tax funds to meet 
the cost of cleaning and guarding the building, such appro- 
priations are made regularly in the city under discussion and 
elsewhere. This established practice might very properly be 
recognized in the contract. 

As noted in preceding chapters, local and county support 
is given to the educational work of many museums. However, 
appropriations for any purpose not immediately related to the 
occupancy of land and building are not to be touched upon 
in a contract of the sort under discussion. In fact they are 
not known to be covered by contract at all—being regulated 
instead by precedent and the judgment of governmental 
authorities. 


THE CONTRACT 


THis AGREEMENT, made and concluded on the twenty- 
second day of December, in the year one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-seven, between the DEPARTMENT OF 
PUBLIC PARKS OF THE CiTy OF NEW York the party of 
the first part, and the AMERICAN MusEuM OF NATURAL 
History, party of the second part, witnesseth: 

Whereas, by an Act of the Legislature of the State of 
New York, passed April 22, 1876, entitled ‘‘An Act in re- 
lation to the powers and duties of the Board of Commis- 
sioners of the Department of Public Parks, in connection 
with the American Museum of Natural History, and the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art,’”’ the said party of the first 
part is authorized and directed to enter into a contract 
with the said party of the second part, for the occupation 


APPENDIX C 345 


by it of the buildings erected or to be erected on that por- 
tion of the Central Park in the City of New York, known 
as Manhattan Square, and for transferring thereto and 
establishing and maintaining therein its museum, library 
and collections, and carrying out the objects and purposes 
of said party of the second part; and, 

Whereas, a building contemplated by said act has now 
been erected and nearly completed and equipped in a manner 
suitable for the purposes of said Museum, as provided in 
the first section of the Act of May 15, 1875, known as 
Chapter 351, of the Laws of 1875, for the purpose of estab- 
lishing and maintaining therein the said Museum, as pro- 
vided by the said last named act, and by the Act of April 5, 
1871, known as Chapter 290, of the Laws of 1871; and, 

Whereas, it is desired as well by the said party of the 
first part, as by the said party of the second part, that, 
immediately upon the completion and equipment of said 
building, the said party of the second part should be estab- 
lished therein, and should transfer thereto its museum, 
library and collections, and carry out the objects and pur- 
poses of the said party of the second part; 

Now, therefore, it is agreed by and between the said 
parties as follows, namely: 

First.—That the said party of the first part, has granted 
and demised and let, and doth, by these presents, grant, 
demise and let, unto the said party of the second part, the 
said buildings and the appurtenances thereunto belonging, 
to have and to hold the same so long as the said party of 
the second part shall continue to carry out the objects and 
purposes defined in its charter; or such other objects and 
purposes as by any future amendment of said charter may 
be authorized; and shall faithfully keep, perform, and ob- 
serve the covenants and conditions herein contained on its 
part to be kept, performed and observed, or until the said 
building shall be surrendered by the said party of the 
second part, as hereinafter provided. 

Secondly.—That neither the party of the first part, its 
successor or successors, nor the Mayor, Aldermen and Com- 


346 APPENDIX C 


monalty of the City of New York, shall be in any manner 
chargeable or liable for the preservation of the said building 
or the property of the party of the second part which may 
be placed therein, against fire, or for any damage or injury 
that may be caused by fire to the said property; but it is 
agreed that, damages as aforesaid excepted, the said party 
of the first part will keep said building from time to time in 
repair. ) 

Thurdly.—That as soon after the completion and equip- 
ment of said building as practicable, said party of the 
second part shall transfer to, and place and arrange in said 
building, its museum, library and collections, or such por- 
tion thereof as can be properly displayed to the public 
therein, and shall have and enjoy the exclusive use of the 
whole of said building, subject to the provisions herein 
contained, and the rules and regulations herein prescribed, 
during the continuance of the term granted, or until a 
surrender thereof, as herein provided. 

Fourthly.—That the exhibition halls of said building shall, 
on Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday of each 
week, and on all legal or public holidays, except Sunday, 
be kept open and accessible to the public, free of charge, 
from nine o’clock A.M. until half an hour before sunset, 
under such rules and regulations as the party of the second 
part shall from time to time prescribe; but on the remaining 
days of the week the same shall be only open for exhibition 
to such persons, upon such terms as the said party of the 
second part shall from time to time direct. But all pro- 
fessors and teachers of the public schools of the City of 
New York, or other institutions of learning in said city, 
in which instruction is given free of charge, shall be ad- 
mitted to all the advantages afforded by the said party of 
the second part, through its museum, library, apparatus, 
and collections, or otherwise, for study, research and in- 
vestigation, free of any charge therefor, and to the same 
extent and on the same terms and conditions as any other 
persons are admitted to such advantages as aforesaid. 

Fifthly.—That the myseum, library, and collections, and 


i daa 


APPENDIX C 347 


all other property of said party of the second part, which 
shall or may be placed in said building, shall continue to 
be and remain absolutely the property of said party of the 
second part, and neither the said party of the first part 
nor the said the Mayor, Aldermen and Commonalty, shall 
by reason of said property being placed in said building, 
or continuing therein, have any right, title, property or 
interest therein; nor shall the said party of the second part, 
by reason of its occupation and use of said building under 
this agreement, acquire, or be deemed to have any right, 
title, property or interest in said building, except so far as 
expressly granted by this agreement. 

Sixthly.—That the said party of the second part shall, 
on or before the first day of May, in every year, during the 
continuance of this agreement, submit to the said party 
of the first part, its successor or successors, a detailed printed 
report of the operations and transactions of the said party 
of the second part, and all its receipts and payments, for 
the year ending with the 31st day of December next pre- 
ceding. 

Seventhly.—That said party of the first part shall have, 
at all times, access to every part of the said building for 
general visitation and supervision, and also for the purpose 
of the performance of the duties devolved upon it by the 
laws of the State of New York, or of the City of New York. 
That the police powers and supervision of said party of 
the first part shall extend in, through and about said build- 
ing. That the said party of the second part may appoint, 
direct, control and remove all persons employed within 
said building, and in and about the care of said building, 
and the museum, library and collections therein contained. 

Eighthly.—That said party of the second part may, at 
any time, after the expiration of three, and before the 


expiration of six, months from the date of the service of a 


notice in writing to said party of the first part, its successor 
or successors, or the Mayor of the City of New York, of 
its intention so to do, quit and surrender the said premises 
and remove all its property therefrom; and upon and after 


348 APPENDIX C 


such notice, the said party of the second part shall and 
will, at the expiration of the said six months, quietly and 
peaceably yield up and surrender unto the said party of 
the first part and its successors all and singular the aforesaid 
demised premises. And it is expressly understood and 
agreed by and between the parties hereto that if the said 
party of the second part shall omit to do, perform, fulfill 
or keep any or either of the covenants, articles, clauses and 
agreements, matters and things herein contained, which on 
its part are to be done, performed, fulfilled or kept, accord- 
ing to the true intent and meaning of these presents, then 
and from thenceforth this grant and demise shall be utterly 
null and void. And in such case it shall and may be law- 
ful for said Department to serve or cause to be served on 
the said party of the second part a notice in writing declar- 
ing that the said grant hereinbefore made has become 
utterly null and void and thereupon the said party of the 
first part, its successor or successors (ninety days’ time 
being first given to the said party of the second part to 
remove its property therefrom), may re-enter, and shall 
again have, repossess and enjoy the premises aforemen- 
tioned, the same as in their first and former estate, and in 
like manner as though these presents had never been made, 
without let or hindrance of the said party of the second 
part, anything here contained to the contrary notwith- 
standing. | 

Ninthly.—And it is further expressly understood and 
agreed, by and between the parties hereto, that this agree- 
ment may be wholly cancelled and annulled, or, from time 
to time, altered, or modified, as may be agreed, in writing 
between the said parties, or their successors, anything herein 
contained to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding. 

In witness whereof, the party of the first part hath caused 
this agreement to be executed by their President and 
Secretary, pursuant to a resolution of the Board of Com- 
missioners of said Department, adopted at a meeting held — 
on the thirtieth day of January, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight and the said 


APPENDIX C 349 


party of the second part hath caused the same to be executed 
by their President, and their official seal affixed thereto, 
pursuant to a resolution of the Trustees of the American 
Museum of Natural History, adopted at a meeting held 
on the twelfth day of February, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-seven. 


APPENDIX D 


LAWS OF THE VARIOUS STATES RELATING TO 
SUPPORT OF MUSEUMS, ART GALLERIES AND 
HISTORICAL SOCIETIES BY COUNTY OR 
MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES 


THE compilation which forms the basis of this appendix 
was made by the Legislative Reference Section of the New 
York State Library. Thanks are due William E. Hannan, 
Legislative Librarian, who has given much help and coun- 
sel, and to Ruth Montgomery and Elisabeth F. Makin who 
prepared the report. The author has added the short sum- 
maries to facilitate perusal. 

In addition to the general legislation here quoted, there 
are many special, or private, acts each of which applies to one 
institution only. To find them, one would be obliged to con- 
sult the indexes to unconsolidated laws, year by year, from 
1777 to the present time. 

It is felt that special state legislation need not be encour- 
aged. The first requirement is the adoption in each state of a 
general act comparable to the most recent and very short one 
of Ohio (Laws 1925). Somewhat too specific are the Cali- 
fornia act (Statutes 1923), the Illinois act (Revised Statutes 
1921, p. 2524) and the Indiana act (Statutes 1921), although in 
general they are framed along lines which a model bill would 
follow. The other acts either apply to a part of the field— 
favoring historical societies or art galleries, for example—or are 
deemed to be out of keeping with best practice. 


CALIFORNIA 


Summary—Any city or county may purchase or lease lands" 
for museum purposes, including erection of buildings, under 
such terms as the city or county may determine. — 

A county may establish, maintain and promote the inter- 


350 


APPENDIX D 351 


ests of a museum devoted to the acquisition, exhibition and 
utilization of objects of science, art or history. It may acquire 
real and personal property necessary for housing and exhibi- 
tion of the material, and for management, and it may acquire 
and dispose of museum material. It may acquire and main- 
tain a library, conduct lectures and hold meetings, promote 
research, provide instruction, cooperate with educational in- 
stitutions, issue publications and employ a museum staff. 
Any county in which a museum is established under this act 
may become associated with organizations for the advance- 
ment of museum interests, and may send a representative to 
any meeting of any such organization. 


Section z. Any municipal corporation, county, or city 
and county in this state is hereby authorized and empowered 
to acquire and hold by purchase or otherwise, or by lease, 
lands situated within the limits thereof, for a term not exceed- 
ing fifty years, for the purpose of developing and encouraging 
agricultural, horticultural, or botanical products and for 
exhibiting the same, or for the purpose of erecting, rebuilding 
or furnishing historical museums or art galleries thereon under 
such terms and conditions as may be approved by the city 
council, board of trustees, or other legislative body of such 
municipal corporation, or by the board of supervisors of such 
county or city and county. (California. General Laws 
1920, pt. 2, 1901.) 


Section r. The board of supervisors of any county may by 
ordinance declare its intention to establish and maintain a 
museum of history, science and art, or of one or more of such 
similar objects, under the provisions of this act. After such 
ordinance has taken effect the board of supervisors shall have 
and may exercise any or all of the powers in this act provided, 
either directly or by agents under its direction and control, 
and any other power necessary and proper to promote the 
objects and purposes of a museum as an institution devoted to 
the acquisition, exhibition and utilization of scientific, artis- 
tic, historical or similar illustrative material. 


352 APPENDIX D 


Section 2. Such board of supervisors shall have power to 
acquire real and personal property necessary properly to 
house and care for the exhibits and materials placed in such 
museum, and for the management of the same. 


Section 3. Such board of supervisors shall have power to 
acquire and maintain a library in furtherance of the objects 
of the museum. 


Section 4. Such board of supervisors shall have power to 
purchase, collect, trade or exchange for, or otherwise acquire 
exhibition or study material proper or necessary for the use 
of the museum and may sell, loan or exchange such material 
acquired by it, according to the established custom of 
museums. 


Section 5. Such board of supervisors shall have power to 
conduct lectures, entertainments and receptions and hold 
meetings in furtherance of the interests of the museum for 
the purpose of acquainting the public with material or exhi- 
bitions in the museum, or in order that the educational advan- 
tages offered by the museum may be widely distributed. 


Section 6. Such board of supervisors may conduct or assist 
study, investigation or research in any department estab- 
lished by such museum. 


Section 7. Such board of supervisors may conduct special or 
technical schools or institutes for instruction in any of the 
matters pertaining to or connected with the museum and 
may charge such fees as may be necessary to defray the cost 
of such instruction. 


Section 8. Such board of supervisors may cooperate with 
other governmentai agencies, with universities, colleges, 
technical schools, societies or individuals in the advancement 
of learning in the arts and sciences. 


Section 9. Such board of supervisors may publish docu- 
ments pertaining to the work of the museum and may sell or 
exchange or distribute the same without charge. 


APPENDIX D 353 


Section 10. Such board of supervisors may employ such 
curators, attendants or other persons as may be necessary 
to conduct such museum and carry out the powers granted 
by this act. 


Section 11. Any county in which a museum has been estab- 
lished and is being maintained under this act may become 
associated with other governmental agencies, associations, 
societies or persons in any society, association or conference 
the purpose of which is the promotion of museums and the 
objects advanced by museums, and its board of supervisors 
may send a representative to any meeting of any such soci- 
ety, association or conference. (California. Statutes 1923, 


ch. 24, p. 43-44.) 
COLORADO 


Summary—Any county may create a local branch of the 
state historical society and may assist in maintaining it, or 
any similar organization, by giving it the use of rooms in the 
county house and by providing equipment for the preserva- 
tion and exhibition of material. The county is to have title 
to material but the society is to be given custody and super- 
vision of it. Finances are to be controlled jointly by the 
secretary of the society and the chairman of the board of 
county supervisors. 


Sec. 235. Each county is authorized, through its board 
of county commissioners, to create and maintain a county 
unit, tributary to the state society, and having in view the 
same objects as the state society. 


Sec. 5236. Whenever there shall be organized in any one 
of the several counties, a patriotic society to promote these 
objects and composed of members of character and standing, 
whether called an early settlers society, or by some other 
name, it shall be the duty of the executive officers of said 
county, to permit the use of room, or rooms, in the court 
house for its meetings, and otherwise; Provided, Such use shall 


354 | APPENDIX D 


not interfere with the usual and legitimate purpose of such 
room, or rooms. 


Sec. 8237. The executive officials of the county shall pro- 
vide suitable room and furniture for the safe keeping and 
exhibition of the collection of the county unit, or society, as 
in their judgment may seem proper; and shall pay the cost of 
same from the general fund from any moneys not otherwise 
appropriated. 


Sec. 8238 While the collection and supervision of this 
county library, museum and curio collection, here author- 
ized, shall be intrusted to a patriotic society, united for the 
purpose, the title to all property thus accumulated shall be in 
the executive officers of the county where located, and their 
successors in office. 


Sec. 8239. The secretary of the patriotic society in charge 
shall be the custodian of all property of the county unit, or 
society. The secretary of the county unit and the chairman 
of the board of county commissioners shall be a board to con- 
trol the finances and to make needed purchases. The patriotic 
society in charge shall incur no debt. 


Sec. 6240. To bind and preserve copies of newspapers pub- 
lished in the county where located; to preserve manuscripts 
and photographs of local interest; to procure a copy, or copies 
of all books pertaining to the Rocky Mountain country and 
especially to preserve to the fullest extent possible the his- 
tory of our soldiers in the recent world war shall be a prime 
object of each county society, and payment for the same 
shall be made by the county commissioners from the general 
fund of the county at their discretion. 


Sec. 8241. It shall be the duty of the secretary-custodian 
of every county unit, taking advantage of this act, to report 


from time to time to the state historical and natural history 


[society] of Colorado, matters which relate to the historical 
development of that county, or of the state; and also immedi- 


eS ee ne 


APPENDIX D 355 


ately after December 1, of each biennial period, to make a 
full report of the transactions of the county society for the 
preceding biennial period, including therein a report of the 
financial transactions and of the historical, and other material 
accumulated during that time. Such report shall be trans- 
mitted, in full, or in condensed form by the state historical 
and natural history society of Colorado with its report to the 
governor. (Colorado. Compiled Laws, 1921, p. 2107.) 


ILLINOIS 


Summary—Any county, city, town or village may appro- 
priate for historical society research, publication and mark- 
ing of sites. 

Any city or park district may purchase or erect and may 
maintain a building for a museum of arts and sciences within 
any park under its control. It may permit the trustees of a 
museum to erect and maintain a building within a park, and 
it may contract with the trustees of a museum in regard to 
maintenance, provided that the museum fulfill certain speci- 
fied requirements. For the maintenance of such a museum the 
board of park commissioners may levy an annual tax of 14 
mill on each dollar of taxable property in the park district, 
provided that authority shall have been given by popular 
vote. 

Any county, city, town or village may order the originals 
of public documents to be transferred to specified state organ- 
izations or to a local historical society and may make appro- 
priations to carry these provisions into effect. 


Section 67. Sec. 1. Be it enacted by the People of the 
State of Illinois, represented in the General Assembly: That 
the several counties, cities, towns and villages in this State 
acting through their constituted authorities, shall have power 
to encourage and promote historical research within their 
respective jurisdiction by making reasonable appropriations 
for the publication of the proceedings of and such papers and 
other documents of historic interest as may be furnished by 
any historic or other society engaged in historic research, and 


356 APPENDIX D 


for ascertaining and marking the location of ancient forts, 
villages, missions, military encampments, habitations of 
aborigines and other places of historic interest, and to pro- 
vide for the manner in which and the purpose for which such 
appropriations shall be expended. | 


Section 68. Sec. 2. The authorities of such counties, cit- 
ies, towns and villages having so undertaken the publication 
of the proceedings, papers and documents mentioned in the 
first section of this Act shall have the power to cause the same 
to be printed or published in book or pamphlet form and to 
provide for the sale thereof at such prices as in their ‘judg- 
ment will reimburse the cost of publication. (Illinois. Re- 
vised Statutes 1921, p. 2182-83.) 


Section 369. Sec. r. That the corporate authorities of 
cities and park districts having the control or supervision of 
any public park or parks, are hereby authorized to purchase, 
erect and maintain within any public park, under the control 
or supervision of such corporate authorities, edifices to be used 
as museums for the collection and display of objects pertain- 
ing to natural history or the arts and sciences, or to permit 
the directors or trustees of any museum devoted to either of 
the purposes aforesaid to erect and maintain its museum or 
museums within any public park now or hereafter under the 
control of supervision of any city or park district, and to con- 
tract with the directors or trustees of any such museum or 
museums relative to the erection and maintenance thereof. 
Such cities and park districts may charge, or permit such mu- 
seums to charge an admission fee, not to exceed 25 cents for 
each visitor over ten years of age and not exceeding 10 cents 
for each visitor of ten years of age, or under, the proceeds of 
such admission fee to be devoted exclusively to the mainte- 
nance of such museum: Provided, that all such museums shall 
be open to the public without charge for three days each 
week, and to the children in actual attendance upon any of 
the schools in this State at all times. If any owners or owner 
of any lands or lots abutting or fronting on any such public 
park, or adjacent thereto, have any private right, easement, 


APPENDIX D 357 


interest or property in such public park appurtenant to their 
lots or lands or otherwise, which would be interfered with by 
the erection and maintenance of any museum as hereinbefore 
provided, or any right to have such public park remain open 
or vacant and free from buildings, the corporate authorities 
of the city or park district having control of such park, may 
condemn the same in the manner prescribed in an Act of the 
General Assembly entitled, ‘‘An Act to provide for the exer- 
cise of the right of eminent domain,’ approved April roth, 
1872, in force July Ist, 1872, and the amendments thereto.”’ 


Section 370. Sec. 2. That any board of park commission- 
ers, having control of a public park, within which there shall 
be maintained any museum or museums of art, sciences or 
natural history, under the provisions of this Act, is hereby 
authorized to annually levy a tax (in addition to all other 
taxes authorized by law) of one-third of one mill on each dol- 
lar of taxable property embraced in said district, according to 
the valuation of the same as made for the purpose of State 
and county taxation by the general assessment last preceding 
the time when such one-third of one mill tax shall be levied for 
the purpose of maintaining and caring for such museum or 
museums and the buildings and grounds thereof; and the pro- 
ceeds of such additional tax shall be kept as a separate fund: 
Provided, the proposition to annually levy a tax as herein 
authorized shall first be submitted to a vote of the legal 
voters of such park district and receive a majority of the votes 
cast upon such proposition. (Illinois. Revised Statutes 
1921, p. 2524.) 

Section 19. Sec. r. The board of supervisors or board of 
county commissioners, as the case may be, of every county, 
and the city council or board of trustees of every city, town 
or village in this State may, by order or resolution, authorize 
and direct to be transferred to the Illinois State Historical 
Society, the Illinois State Historical Library or to the State 
University Library at Urbana, Illinois, or to any historical 
society duly incorporated and located within their respective 
counties, such official papers, drawings, maps, writings and 


358 APPENDIX D 


records of every description as may be deemed of historic in- 
terest or value, and as may be in the custody of any officer of 
such county, city, or village. Accurate copies of the same 
when so transferred shall be substituted for the original when 
in the judgment of such county board, city council or board of 
trustees the same may be deemed necessary. 


Section 20. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the officer or 
officers having the custody of such papers, drawings, maps, 
writings and records to permit search to be made at all reason- 
able hours and under their supervision for such as may be 
deemed of historic interest, and whenever directed by the 
board of supervisors or county board, city council or board of 
trustees of such county, city, town or village in the manner 
prescribed in the foregoing section to deliver the same to the 
trustees, directors or librarian or other officer of the library 
or society designated by said board of supervisors or county 
board, city council or board of trustees, as the case may be. 


Section 21. Sec. 3. The board of supervisors, county 
board, city council and board of trustees of the several coun- 
ties, cities, towns and villages in this State shall have the 
power to make reasonable appropriations from their respec- 
tive revenues for the purpose of carrying the provisions of 
this Act into effect. (Illinois. Revised Statutes 1921, p. 
3258.) 

INDIANA 


Summary—Upon petition of a local historical society and 
fifty taxpayers any county may appropriate $5,000 or less 
for the construction and equipping of quarters for the society, 
provided that the society has been in existence for at least 
five years and has fulfilled specified requirements. Such 
quarters are either to be provided in connection with the 
county courthouse or constructed upon land belonging to the 
county. They are to be owned and maintained by the county. 
The quarters may be used jointly by more than one society 
or may be passed on from one society to another. 

The county may employ a curator upon recommendation 


APPENDIX D 359 


of the historical society, and the society shall prescribe his 
duties. The salary shall not exceed $75 a month. 

The county may also appropriate for publication of catalogs 
and papers an amount which, together with the curator’s sal- 
ary, shall not exceed $1,500 each year. 

In any city of 100,000 or more inhabitants, which has an 
art association that is incorporated not for profit and is organ- 
ized for the purpose of maintaining an art gallery, the school 
authorities shall pay annually 14 mill per dollar of taxables, 
provided that such association has fulfilled certain specified 
requirements and has duly certified to the facts. If more 
than one association should qualify under the act, one asso- 
ciation designated by the mayor and the school authorities 
shall receive the public support. 


Section 4998. (5037a.) 1. That in any county of the 
state of Indiana where there now is or may hereafter be a his- 
torical society, or local branch of a historical society which, 
at the time of making petition, shall have maintained its or- 
ganization and have been actively engaged in the collection of 
data and material for, and in the preservation of county and 
state history and biography, for a period of not less than five 
consecutive years, during which it shall have held at least one 
meeting in each year at which papers shall have been read and 
addresses made, in the presence of the public, upon matters 
connected with the history of the county and state, the county 
council of such county may, upon the petition of the presi- 
dent and secretary of such historical society and not less than 
fifty voters and taxpayers of the county, having been presented 
to the county commissioners, at a regular session of the board, 
and by the commissioners referred to the county council at a 
regular or called session thereof, with estimates and recom- 
mendations as to amounts of such appropriation, or appro- 
priations, as provided for in section nineteen (19) of an act 
entitled an act concerning county business, approved March 
ard, 1899, appropriate out of any moneys in the county treas- 
ury, not otherwise appropriated, a sum, or sums of money not 
to exceed in the aggregate five thousand dollars ($5,000) for 


360 APPENDIX D 


the construction and furnishing of rooms and fireproof vaults 
for the meetings of such historical society and for the pres- 
ervation of the records of such society and historical papers, 
souvenirs and natural history collections. Such sum of five 
thousand dollars or less, to be appropriated at one time or at 
various sessions of the county council; such rooms and vaults 
to be provided in connection with county courthouses or con- 
structed separately upon land belonging to the county and to 
be the property of the county. Such rooms and vaults to be 
built and maintained for the purposes enumerated in this 
act by the county commissioners and under their supervision 
as provided in section thirty-one (31) of an act entitled an 
act concerning county business, approved March 3rd, 1899. 


Section 4999. (5037b.) 2. Should the historical society 
for which and upon whose petition such rooms and vaults 
shall have been provided by the county, as prescribed in this 
act, fail or voluntarily surrender to the county its rights and 
privileges thereto, or discontinue its meetings for a period of 
two consecutive years, all its papers, records, collections ore 
every kind and furniture shall become the property of the 
county, and the county commissioners shall provide for the 
safe keeping of the same before subjecting the rooms or vaults 
to other uses of or by the county; but this provision shall not 
be so construed as to prevent persons who shall have contrib- 
uted papers or historical or biographical data from making 
copies thereof for their own private use and profit. 


Section 5000. (5037c.) 3. Should there at any time be 
more than one reputable historical society, devoted to some 
branch of historical or biological investigations in any county 
in which such rooms and vaults or permanent buildings as 
are provided for in this act shall have been built, it may be 
admitted to their use upon such conditions, to be determined 
by the county commissioners, as shall not interfere with the 
rights and privileges of the original society; but appropriations 
of money shall be made only for one set of rooms and vaults 
or separate buildings for such purposes in the county. 


APPENDIX D 361 


Section 5001. (5037d.) 4. Such rooms, or buildings and 
vaults, as may be constructed in any county of the state of 
Indiana, under the provisions of this act shall be under the 
joint control of the historical society for the uses of which 
they shall be constructed, and its legitimate successors, and the 
board of county commissioners under such rules as they may, 
by their concurrent action, establish; but such historical soci- 
ety or societies shall alone be responsible for all bills for print- 
ing, publication, stationery, records and other expenses of 
every kind incurred in the prosecution of its or their work, 
except such costs for the construction and maintenance of the 
rooms or buildings and vaults as are heretofore provided for 
in this act. 


Section 5002. (5037e.) 5. Upon or after the forfeiture or 
voluntary surrender of the occupancy of the rooms or build- 
ings and vaults to the county by the historical society for which 
they were constructed, the county commissioners may place 
them in charge of another society organized for similar pur- 
poses as the original society, if such society exists in the 
county, or shall be organized to the satisfaction of the board; 
but preference shall be given to a resumption of the old soci- 
ety, or a reorganization thereof, and any society that shall 
accept the use and care of the property and occupancy of the 
rooms or buildings and vaults, shall be accountable to the 
county for the same and they shall continue to be the prop- 
erty of the county as in the first case. The purposes of this 
act being to create and perpetuate a system for the collection 
and preservation of local and general history, making a rec- 
ord of the progress of the several counties of the state, and 
providing permanent nuclei for individual and family his- 
tory and local observation of natural phenomena. (Indiana. 
Statutes 1914, Vol. 2, pp. 870-871.) 


Sec. 5002a. 1. The board of county commissioners of 
any county of this state, in which there is, or hereafter may be, 
a historical society, having a collection of records, papers 
and other objects of historical interest, and occupying there- 


362 APPENDIX D 


with a room or rooms under the act to which this act is sup- 
plemental, may employ a curator whose duties shall be such 
as may be prescribed by the historical society. The per- 
son who shall be appointed curator shall be a person recom- 
mended by the historical society. 


Sec. 5002b. 2. The compensation of the curator shall be 
fixed by the board of county commissioners, upon the recom- 
mendation of the historical society, but shall not exceed 
seventy-five dollars ($75) per month. For the purpose of 
paying the curator’s salary and printing catalogues of the 
objects of historical interest, constituting the collection of 
the society, and for printing such papers of historical interest, 
as the society may direct, the county council may appropriate 
from the county funds fifteen hundred dollars ($1500) each 
year, which shall be disbursed for the purposes specified in this 
section upon the orders of the board of county commissioners 
made upon reports of this historical society. 

Section 3 of the above act provides that the act be in force 

and effect from and after its passage. 

(Indiana. Annotated sup. v. 5, p. 571.) 


Section S86rer. Art associations, aid by first class cities—1. 
That in any city having more than one hundred thousand in- 
habitants according to the last preceding United States census 
wherein there now is or hereafter shall be an art association 
which is incorporated under the laws of the State of Indiana 
without stock and without purpose of gain to its members, 
but organized for the purpose of maintaining a permanent art 
gallery in said city and encouraging and promoting education 
in the fine and industrial arts and which owns buildings, 
grounds, works of art and other proper equipment for the 
study of art in said city, it shall be the duty of the school 
city of such city and of the board of school commissioners of 
such city, if any, to pay such art association annually in quar- 
terly installments a sum equal to one-quarter of one cent on 
each one hundred dollars of the taxables of said city as valued | 
on the tax duplicate for the next year before the date of each 


APPENDIX D 363 


such payment provided such art association has, by proper 
resolution, adopted by its board of directors or other govern- 
ing body, accepted all the provisions of this act and filed a 
certified copy of such resolution with said school city or 
board of school commissioners of said city prior to the date of 
any such payment. 


Section S&861ft. School officers board of visitors.—2. No 
such art association shall be entitled to receive any of the 
payments so hereinabove provided for until it, by a proper 
resolution adopted by its board of directors or other govern- 
ing body, shall have tendered so said school city, or board of 
school commissioners (1) the right to appoint the superin- 
tendent of the common schools of said school city and the 
director of art instruction of said school city if any such there 
be, as visitors having the privilege of attending all meetings of 
the board of directors or other governing body of said art 
association to the end that they may be advised as to the 
work done and proposed to be done by said association; (2) 
the right to nominate for membership in such board of direc- 
tors or other governing body persons of whom at least two shall 
be elected; (3) the right of free admission for all school chil- 
dren and teachers of said school city to its museum and gal- 
leries and to not fewer than fifty lectures annually on the 
fine and applied arts; (4) the right to use at all reasonable times 
and in all reasonable ways the association’s plant, equipment 
and facilities for education in art, consistently with their use 
by such association and in connection therewith the right to 
use at all reasonable times and in all reasonable ways, under 
the association’s direction, its executive and teaching staffs 
consistently with their established duties to the association; 
(5) normal instruction in the fine and applied arts which at 
half the regular rates charged by said association for like 
instruction may be availed of by all teachers under the juris- 
diction and employment of said school city or board of school 
commissioners; (6) the loan to such school city or board of 
school commissioners from the association’s collection and 
equipment of suitable and available works of art, reproduc- 


364 APPENDIX D 


tions and photographs for temporary exhibitions in the city’s 
schools to aid and supplement the teaching in such schools; 
(7) and such exhibitions in its museums as will supplement and 
illustrate the work of the school children and teachers under 
the authority and jurisdiction of said school city or board of 
school commissioners. A copy of said resolution duly certi- 
fied by the president and secretary of the said art association 
shall be filed in the office of the school city or of the board of 
school commissioners as a condition precedent to the receipt 
by the association of any such payments. 


Section &S61gr. Acceptance of provisions.—3. In any city 
such as is designated in the first section of this act, wherein 
there now is or hereafter shall be an art association which is 
incorporated and organized in the manner and for the pur- 
pose stated in the first section of this act, and which owns 
buildings, grounds, works of art or other proper equipment for 
the study of art in said city, it shall be the duty of the said 
city to pay such art association annually in quarterly install- 
ments a sum equal to one-quarter of one cent on each one 
hundred dollars of taxables of said city as valued on the tax 
duplicate of said city for the year next before the date of each 
such payment provided such art association has, by a proper 
resolution adopted by its board of directors or other govern- 
ing body, accepted all the provisions of this act and filed a cer- 
tified copy of said resolution with the comptroller of said city 
prior to the date of any such payment. 


Section SS61h1. Mayor and comptroller to attend meetings. 
—4. No such art association shall be entitled to receive any 
of the payments provided for in section 3 until such art asso- 
ciation, by a proper resolution adopted by its board of direc- 
tors or other governing body, shall have granted to the mayor 
and the comptroller of said city the right to attend all the 
meetings of the board of directors or other governing body of 
said art association to the end that the said city may at all 
times be advised as to the work done and proposed to be done 
by said art association and the right to nominate for mem- 


APPENDIX D 365 


bership in such board of directors or other managing body 
persons of whom at least two shall be elected; and, as further 
consideration for the benefits to be received from said city by 
reason of such payments, shall have granted to all the inhab- 
itants of said city the right to be admitted free to its museum 
and art galleries each Saturday and Sunday during the usual 
hours. <A copy of such resolutions duly certified by the pres- 
ident and secretary of the art association shall be filed with 
the comptroller of said city as a condition precedent to the 
receipt by the association of any such payments. 


Section 886111. Resolutionsinforce.—5. After any such art 
association shall have once filed respectively with the school 
city or board of school commissioners and with the city comp- 
‘troller the resolution hereinabove provided for, it shall not 
be required to renew the same from year to year but each such 
original resolution shall continue and remain in force for the 
purposes named until by like resolution likewise certified and 
filed any such original resolution shall be revoked or rescinded. 


Section 8861j1. Agreement in force.—6. So long as any such 
art association shall do and perform all and singular the things 
by it so agreed to be performed as considerations for the ben- 
efits to be received by it under this act, or shall continue to 
be able, willing and ready to perform the same, it shall be en- 
titled to receive the said several payments herein provided for. 


Section 8861krt. One association to participate, how chosen. 
—7. If at any time it shall transpire that in any city such as 
is designated in the first section of this act more than one art 
association such as is designated in that section shall have 
qualified as hereinbefore required to perform the several pub- 
lic services in this act mentioned nevertheless the moneys in 
this act authorized and directed to be paid by said city and 
by said school city shall be paid to but one of such associations. 
In such event the particular association to which said moneys 
shall be paid shall be the one selected by both the mayor of 
said city and by the managing body of said school city by 
formal corporate action, as the association best qualified and 


366 APPENDIX D 


equipped to perform and render said several public services. 
Nothing in this act shall be construed as limiting the power 
of the general assembly to repeal this act at any time. (Indi- 
ana. Statutes, Supp. 1921. Vol. 6, p. 1759-1761). 


IOWA 


Summary—County library trustees are authorized to pro- 
vide for county historical society collections. _ 

A city of 50,000 or greater population may establish and 
maintain a public art gallery. It may purchase or rent 
buildings and employ staff. The mayor shall appoint trus- 
tees who shall serve under specified conditions and shall have 
certain powers and duties that are laid down in the law. Any 
such gallery may make contracts with existing art schools or 
other art organizations for joint care or use of the gallery. 
The city may appropriate each year, for purposes of the gal- 
lery, not to exceed 5% of the general fund. 


Section 3755. Whenever a local county historical associa- 
tion shall be formed in any county having a free public library, 
the trustees of such library are hereby authorized to unite with 
such historical association and to set apart the necessary room 
and to care for such articles as may come into the possession 
of said association; said trustees are also authorized to pur- 
chase necessary receptacles and materials for the preserva- 
tion and protection of such articles as are in their judgment 
of a historical and educational nature and pay for the same 
out of the library fund. (Iowa. Compiled Code Ig19, p. 
1128). 


Sec. r. Cities acting under special charter having a pop- 
ulation of fifty thousand (50,000) or more may provide for the 
establishment and maintenance of a municipal art gallery 
which, under proper regulations, shall be open to the use of 
the public, and may purchase, erect, or rent buildings or rooms 
or use any available property belonging to such city, suitable 
for this purpose, and provide for the compensation of neces- 
sary employees. 


ees se ee nh Le eee 


APPENDIX D 367 


Sec. 2. In any city in which a municipal art gallery has 
been established, there shall be a board of art trustees consist- 
ing of five, seven or nine members to be appointed by the 
mayor, by and with the approval of the city council, which 
shall also establish by ordinance the number to be appointed. 


Sec. 3. Of such trustees so appointed on boards to consist of 
nine members, three shall hold office for two years, three for 
four years, and three for six years; on boards tc consist of 
seven members, two shall hold office for two years, two for 
four years and three for six years; and on boards to consist 
of five members, one shall hold office for two years, two for 
four years and two for six years, from the first day of July fol- 
lowing their appointment in each case. At their first meeting 
they shall cast lots for their respective terms and report the 
result of such lot to the council. All subsequent appoint- 
ments, whatever the size of the board, shall be for terms of six 
years each, except to fill vacancies. 


Sec. 4. Only bona fide citizens and residents of the city or 
town, male or female, over the age of twenty-one years, shall 
be eligible to membership. 


Sec. 5. The removal of any trustee permanently from 
the city, or his absence from six consecutive regular meetings 
of the board, except in case of sickness or temporary absence 
from the city, without due explanation of absence, shall ren- 
der his office as trustee vacant. 


Sec. 6. Vacancies in the board shall be filled by appoint- 
ment by the mayor, by and with the approval of the city coun- 
cil, such appointees to fill out the unexpired term for which the 
appointment is made. 


Sec. 7. Members of said board shall receive no compensa- 
tion for their services. 


Sec. 8. In any city where there is an art institute or art 
school or other organization whose purpose is the teaching of 
art or the promotion and development of public interest in 


368 APPENDIX D 


art, the board of trustees may make any contracts with such 
institutions for the special use of such art gallery or for the 
joint care of same as may in any lawful manner be mutually 
agreed upon between them; but no such city shall contribute 
any money for the support of any such private institution and 
no officer or employee of such private institution shall be a 
member of such board. 


Sec. 9. Such board of art trustees shall have and exercise 
the following powers: | : 

1. To meet and organize by the election of one of their 
number as president of the board, and by the election of a 
secretary and such other officers and committees as the board 
may deem necessary. 

2. To have charge, control and supervision of the public 
art gallery, its works of art, appurtenances, fixtures and build- 
ings or rooms containing the same, directing and controlling 
all the affairs of such art gallery. 


3. To employ a director and such assistants and employees 
as may be necessary for the management of said art gallery 
and fix their compensation; but, prior to such employment, 
the compensation of such supervisor, assistants and em- 
ployees, shall be fixed for the term of employment by a major- 
ity vote of such board of art trustees and such compensation 
shall not be increased during such period of employment. 

4. To remove such director, assistants or employees by 
a vote of two-thirds of such boards for misdemeanor, incompe- 
tency or inattention to the duties of such employment. 


5. To accept on behalf of the city, gifts or works of art; 
to select and make purchases of pictures, portraits, paintings, 
statuary and relics, and other objects of art, in the original 
and in replicas or copies, books, periodicals, papers and jour- 
nals on the subject of art, furniture, fixtures, stationery, and 
supplies for such art gallery. 


6. To receive, hold and dispose of all gifts, donations, de- 


vises and bequests that may be made to the city for the pur- 


pose of establishing, increasing, or improving such art gallery; 


APPENDIX D 369 


but when any such gift, donation, devise or bequest shall be 
conditioned upon any act of the city, the city council must 
first determine whether such condition can or shall be com- 
plied with. 


7. To make and adopt, amend, modify, or repeal by-laws, 
rules, regulations, not inconsistent with law, for the care, 
use, government and management of such art gallery and the 
business of said board fixing, and enforcing penalties for the 
violation thereof. 


8. To have exclusive control of the expenditures of all 
taxes levied for the purposes, as provided by law, and of the 
expenditure of all moneys available by gift, or otherwise for 
the erection of art buildings or for the promotion of such art 
galleries and of all other money belonging to the art gallery 
fund. 

Said board shall keep a record of all of its proceedings. 


Sec. 10. The city council may appropriate each year not 
to exceed five per cent (5%) of the general fund for the pur- 
pose of maintaining and enlarging such art gallery and for 
defraying the necessary expenses connected therewith, includ- 
ing the maintenance of the building in which such gallery is 
housed, water, light, heat and power and the salary of the 
director and his assistants. 


Sec. rz. All moneys received and set apart for the main- 
tenance of such art gallery shall be deposited in the treasury of 
such city to the credit of the art gallery fund and shall be kept 
by the treasurer separate and apart from all other moneys and 
paid out upon the orders of the board of art trustees signed 
by its president. 


Sec. 12. Each year the board of art trustees shall make to 
the council a report for the year ending December 31st, con- 
taining a statement of the conditions of the art gallery, the 
number of pictures, portraits, paintings, statuary or relics 
contained in the gallery, and all additions thereto, the amounts 
of fines collected, the amount of donations, devises and be- 
quests received during the year and the amount of money ex- 


370 APPENDIX D 


pended in the maintenance of such art gallery, together with 
such further information as may be deemed important. 


Sec. 13. This act being deemed of immediate importance 
shall be in full force and effect from and after its passage and 
publication in the Des Moines Register at Des Moines, Iowa, 
and in the Daily Times at Davenport, Iowa, without expense 
to the state. (Iowa. Session Laws 1925, ch. 119, p. 109-111.) 


MINNESOTA 


Summary—Any county of specified population and area 
may appropriate up to $2,500 annually to a historical society 
in the county which is designated by the State Historical 
Society for work in the county. The method of payment is 
described in the law. 

The county society is given authority to receive local war 
records. 


Section z. Any county in this state, having a population in 
excess of two hundred thousand (200,000) and less than two 
hundred and twenty-five thousand (225,000) according to 
the United State Census of 1920, and having an area of over 
five thousand (5000) square miles may, by action of its county 
commissioners, appropriate from the treasury of the county 
a sum not to exceed twenty-five hundred dollars ($2500.00) 
each year for the promotion of historical work within its 
borders. 


Section 2, Said sum shall be so appropriated for the use of 
a historical society organized in said county and devoted to 
the collection, preservation and publication of historical 
material, the dissemination of historical information and in 
general carrying on historical work, said society to be desig- 
nated by the Minnesota State Historical Society. 


Section 3. The work of said historical society shal! be done 
in the county making such appropriation and in reference to 
the history of said county and all facts relevant thereto. 


APPENDIX D 371 


Section 4. The money appropriated as aforesaid shall re- 
main in the Treasury of the County and be paid out in pay- 
ment of expense incurred by said County Historical Society 
for the purpose above indicated on verified bills approved by 
said local society according to its rules, in the same way that 
county bills are paid. Said appropriation shall be available 
for expense occurring in any year although not paid until the 
succeeding year. Any unused portion of any appropriation 
for any year shall revert to the funds of the county. Said 
appropriation shall be effective only for the year in which it is 
made. 


Section 5. It shall be lawful for the county historical so- 
ciety, designated as aforesaid, by the Minnesota Historical 
Society to carry on the work of the Minnesota War Records 
Commission in its county and to receive, on and after the 
year 1923, possession of all local war records of any local war 
records commission of its county subject to the approval of 
the State War Records Commission and the Minnesota His- 
torical Society. (Minnesota. Session laws 192%, ch. 202, p. 
229-230.) 


NEW JERSEY 


Summary—Municipally-owned land or buildings may be 
leased to an incorporated historical society for a term not to 
exceed twenty years, at a nominal rental if desired, and upon 
such other terms as may be determined by the city. 

A county may acquire land or buildings for the purpose of 
preserving data and objects of historical interest, and may 
lease the land or buildings to any incorporated historical soci- 
ety of the county upon such terms as it may determine. The 
rental may be nominal. 


Section z. Any land, building or buildings or interests 
therein owned by any municipality within its territoral lim- 
its, and in the judgment of the governing body of such munici- 
pality, or other body in control of such land, not at the time 
needed for municipal purposes, may be leased by such govern- 


372 APPENDIX D 


ing body or other body in control thereof to any incorporated 
historical society of such municipality for a term not to exceed 
twenty years and for such rental and upon such terms as such 
governing body or other body in control of such lands may by 
resolution determine; said rental may be, if such body so de- 
termines, only a nominal amount and may be less than the 
actual rental value of the land and improvements, and such 
governing body or other body in control as aforesaid is hereby 
authorized to make such lease accordingly. (New Jersey. 
Laws 1923, p. 127, ch. 60.) 


Section 1. Any county may acquire, by gift or purchase, 
any land or real estate or any interest therein, together with 
any and all buildings thereon within the limits of any such 
county for historical purposes or for the purpose of preserving 
therein or thereon historical data and objects of historical 
interest. 


Section 2. Any land, building or buildings thus acquired 
may be leased by the board of chosen freeholders of such 
county to any incorporated historical society of such county 
for such term of years as the board of chosen freeholders of 
such county may determine, and the respective boards of 
chosen freeholders of the several counties in this State are 
hereby authorized to lease such lands and buildings to any such 
incorporated historical society upon such terms and for such 
rental as said board may, by resolution, determine; said ren- 
tal may be, if such board determines, only a nominal amount, 
and may not be the amount of the actual rental value of such 
building. (New Jersey. Laws 1920, ch. 269, p. 490.) 


NEW YORK 


Summary—The mayor or another public official shall ap- 
point a local historian for each town or city or each borough 
of each city with more than one million inhabitants. The 
local authorities may provide the historian with space for the 
preservation of materials collected. The historians shall 
serve without pay unless other provision is made. Any 


APPENDIX D 373 


county, city, town or village may aid the work of the local 
historian either directly or in cooperation with patriotic organ- 
izations by appropriating money for marking of sites, collect- 
ing of historic objects and publishing. 

It shali be the duty of each local historian to cooperate 
with the state historian in collecting and preserving material 
relating to local history. 


Section 1198. A local historian shall be appointed, as pro- 
vided in this section, for each city, town or village, except 
that in a city of over one million inhabitants a local historian 
shall be appointed for each borough therein instead of for the 
city at large. Such local historian shall be appointed as fol- 
lows: For a city, by the mayor; for a borough, by the borough 
president; for a town, by the supervisors; for a village, by the 
president of the board of trustees. Such historian shall serve 
without compensation, unless the governing board of the 
city, town or village for or in which he or she was appointed, 
shall otherwise provide. In a city having a board of estimate 
and apportionment, a resolution or ordinance establishing 
compensation or salary for such historian shall not take effect 
without the concurrence of such board. The local authorities 
of the city, town or village for which such historian is appointed 
may provide the historian with sufficient space in a safe, vault, 
or other fireproof structure for the preservation of materials 
collected. Such local authorities and also the board of super- 
visors of each of the counties of the state are hereby author- 
ized and empowered to appropriate, raise by tax and expend 
moneys for historical purposes within their several jurisdic- 
tions, including the placing of memorial tablets, in the collec- 
tion of war mementoes, and, either alone or in cooperation 
with patriotic organizations, prepare and publish local histor- 
ies and records relating to the world war and print and issue 
other historical publications in aid of the work of the local 
historian. 


Sec. 1199. It shall be the duty of each local historian, 
appointed as provided in the last section, in cooperation with 
the State Historian, to collect and preserve material relating 


374 APPENDIX D 


to the history of the political subdivisions for which he or she 
is appointed, and to file such material in fireproof safes or 
vaults in the city, town or village offices. Such historian shall 
examine into the condition, classification and safety from fire 
of the public records of the public offices of such city, town or 
village, and shall call to the attention of the local authorities 
and the State historian and material of local historic value 
which should be acquired for preservation. He or she shall 
make an annual report, in the month of January to the local 
appointing officer or officers, and to the State Historian of 
the work which has been accomplished during the preceding 
year. He or she shall, upon retirement or removal from office, 
turn over to the local, city, town or village authorities, or to 
his successor in office, if one has been then appointed, all 
materials gathered during his or her incumbency and all corre- 
spondence relating thereto. The State Historian, at regular 
intervals, not less than once a year, shall indicate to the local 
historians the general lines along which local history material 
is to be collected. (New York. Laws 1919, ch. 181; 1921, 
chs. 381, 634.) 


OHIO 


Summary—Any county may support a properly organized 
local historical society by appropriation of $100 or less a year 
for purposes of historical research. It may house the society 
in any county building. 

If a museum of science or art provides in a specified way? 
for the use of its building by the public, then the city, village 
or county in which it is located may allow the museum to use 
park land or other public property for building purposes. In 
such cases it may be agreed that public officials may appoint 
trustees of the museum and themselves become ex-officio 
trustees. 

Any city may appropriate from general funds, or may raise 

* The specifications, which are omitted from Section 10193 of the follow- 


ing text are so detailed that the act, in effect, is special legislation for a 
single institution. This circumstance led to the act of 1925. 


APPENDIX D 375 


by taxation, not to exceed 14 mill on each dollar of taxable 
property each year, and may pay it to a privately organized 
museum of art, science or history maintained for the people. 
The city and the museum may enter into contract as to terms. 


Section 2457-1. ‘The county commissioners of any county 
having therein an historical or pioneer association, incor- 
porated not for profit, with a board of trustees or directors 
legally constituted, may allow and pay out of the general 
fund in the county treasury, not otherwise appropriated, the 
cost expended by such incorporation in collecting, compiling 
and publishing in pamphlet or book form, papers, memoranda 
and data of historical value, together with the regular pro- 
ceedings of such incorporation, not exceeding one hundred 
dollars in any one year. 


Section 2457-2. No allowance for such cost shall be made or 
paid unless an itemized account thereof duly approved by 
the board of trustees or directors of such incorporation shall 
be duly presented to such county commissioners. 


Section 2457-3. Such publications shall be placed in the 
custody of such corporations and be by the same distributed 
at such price and in such manner as the incorporation may 
direct. (Ohio. General Code 1921, pp. 718-19.) 


Section 3069. The commissioners of any county may permit 
the occupancy by any society or association of soldiers, sail- 
ors, marines and pioneers, or any historical association, of any 
county building, or part of parts thereof not necessary for 
other county purposes. (Ohio. General Code 1921, p. 816.) 


Section 10193. When a corporation organized for the pur- 
pose of constructing and conducting a museum for the exhibi- 
tion and preservation of works of nature and art, and for 
instruction in connection therewith . . . provides in its 
articles of incorporation that its buildings or a designated 
part thereof, shall be devoted to the use of the public for all 
purposes set forth therein, free from cost, charge or expense 
except such as are necessary to provide the means to keep 


376 APPENDIX D 


the buildings, or part thereof and its grounds in proper condi- 
tion and repair, and to pay the cost of insurance, care, man- 
agement and attendance, so that the public may have the 
benefit thereof for the uses set forth in its articles at as little 
expense as possible, that no stockholder, subscriber, trustee, 
director, or member shall receive any compensation, gain or 
profit from the corporation for such public use of its buildings 
or part thereof, the authorities of any city, village or county 
in which the corporation is located, may appropriate to such 
use and grant the right to such corporation to erect and perpet- 
ually maintain its buildings on any of the parks, lands, lots or 
grounds which, or the use of which belong to or are subject 
to the control of such city, village, county, or the authorities 
thereof, and to control them on terms and conditions which 
may be agreed upon between the public authorities and the 
corporation. In every such case the public authorities and 
corporation may agree that additional trustees of the corpora- 
tion may be appointed by such public authorities, and upon 
the number thereof and the method of their appointment. 
They also may agree that any officer or officers of such city, 
village or county to be designated by them ex-officio may act 
as trustees. (Ohio. General Code 1921, p. 2239.) 


Section 1. That section 4020 of the General Code be 


amended to read as follows: 


Sec. 4020. The council of each city may appropriate from 
its general funds, or may levy and collect a tax, not to exceed 
one-quarter of one mill on each dollar of the taxable property 
of the municipality each year, and pay it to a private cor- 
poration or association, not for profit, maintaining and fur- 
nishing a free museum of art, science, or history, for the bene- 
fit of the inhabitants of the municipality, as and for com- 
pensation for the use and maintenance thereof. The city 
council may enter into a contract or agreement with such 
corporation or association setting forth the terms and condi- 
tions upon which the appropriations are to be made and 
paid. (Ohio Laws 1925, p. 87.) 


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Po ee ee ae a ee: Ae a ee i wy 


APPENDIX D 377 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Summary—Any city of the first, second or third class may 
make an annual appropriation to its principal historical soci- 
ety, provided the society has fulfilled certain specified require- 
ments. | | 

Any county may make an annual appropriation of $1,000 
or less to a local historical society to assist in paying its run- 
ning expenses. Two or more counties may appropriate the 
same amount jointly to a society composed of residents of the 
several counties. In any case the society must have fulfilled 
certain requirements stated in the law. 

Upon petition of fifty citizens for erection and maintenance 
of a war memorial, approved by two successive grand juries, 
the county shall bring the question to vote and if the project is 
favored, the county shall acquire property at the county seat 
and erect a memorial hall containing fireproof rooms for the 
county historical society. These rooms shall be properly 
equipped. 


Section 2972. It shall be lawful for the councils or council 
of cities of the first, second, and third classes within this 
Commonwealth to make an annual appropriation from the 
funds of such city or cities for the support and maintenance 
of the principal historical society located therein: Provided, 
That, as a prerequisite to the receiving of an appropriation, 
any such society shall be incorporated under the laws of the 
State of Pennsylvania, shall own its own building and keep 
it open to the public, shall have a membership of at least two 
hundred persons who pay annual dues of at least two dollars, 
shall hold, annually, at least six regular meetings that shall be 
open to the public, and shall at all times maintain facilities for 
the free storage, deposit, and inspection of official documents 
and records of such city or cities, and other proper public 
or historical archives and records. (Pennsylvania. Statutes 


1920, p. 277) 


Section 7522. From and after the passage of this act, the 
commissioners’ board of the respective counties of this 


378 APPENDIX D 


Commonwealth may, in its discretion, pay out of the county 
funds not otherwise appropriated, and upon proper vouchers 
being given, a sum not exceeding one thousand dollars, 
annually, to the historical society of said county, to assist in 
paying the running expenses thereof. Where such a society is 
comprised of residents of more than one county, the commis- 
sioners of said respective counties may jointly pay said sum in 
such proportion as they shall agree. 


Seciton 7523. In order to entitle the said historical society 
to the said appropriation, the following conditions shall have 
been first complied with: The money shall be paid to the old- 
est society in each county, if there be more than one; it shall 
have been organized at least three years; incorporated by the 
proper authority, and have an active membership of one 
hundred persons, each of whom shall have paid into the treas- 
ury of said society a membership fee of at least two dollars 
for the support of the same: And provided further, That no 
appropriation under this act shall be renewed until vouchers 
shall be first filed with the board of county commissioners, 
showing that the appropriation for the prior year shall have 
been expended for the purpose designated by this act. 


Section 7524. And be it further enacted, that to entitle said 
society to receive said appropriation it shall hold at least 
two public meetings yearly, whereat papers shall be read or 
discussions held on historic subjects; that it shall have estab- 
lished a museum, wherein shall be deposited curios and other 
objects of interest relating to the history of county or state, 
and shall have adopted a constitution and code of by-laws, 

and elected proper officers to conduct its business. (Penn- 
sylvania Statutes 1920, p. 707.) 


Section 23. In any county of the commonwealth, where the 
petition of at least fifty citizens thereof to the county com- 
missioners of any county for the erection or completion and 


maintenance of a memorial or monument in honor of the — 
soldiers, sailors, and marines for such county, who served in 


the army and navy of the United States in the war of the 


APPENDIX D 379 


rebellion, the Spanish-American war, the Philippine Insurrec- 
tion, the war with Germany and Austria, and all other wars in 
which the United States has been or may hereafter be engaged, 
has been or may be laid before two successive grand juries and 
approved by them, it shall be the duty of the county com- 
missioners to submit the question of the erection of a memo- 
rial hall to the electors of the county at the next general or 
municipal election; and, if a majority of the persons voting 
at such election shall vote in favor of the same, it shall be the 
duty of the county commissioners to erect, at the county 
seat, a memorial hall as such memorial or monument, and for 
such purpose to acquire by purchase, donation, or by condem- 
nation under the right of eminent domain, the necessary site, 
and to erect and maintain thereon a suitable and proper memo- 
rial hall or buildings in memory of the soldiers, sailors and 
marines of such wars. All proceedings for the condemnation 
of any property under the provisions of this act shall be in the 
same manner as now provided by law for the condemnation 
of property for other county purposes. 


Section 27. . . . Such memorial halls shall each contain 
. rooms for the county historical society. 


Section 28. Theroom for the county historical society shall 
be made as nearly fireproof as possible, and be provided 
with the proper files and furnishing for preservation and stor- 
ing of all historical data of the said county with reference to 
any and all subjects. (Pennsylvania. Purdon’s Digest, 


v. 8, p. 9129-30) 


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APPENDIX E 


DEALERS IN REPRODUCTIONS OF WORKS OF 
ART 


THE following compilation is based upon a list prepared by 
Holmes Smith, Professor of Drawing and the History of Art, 
Washington University, and published in 1924 as part of a 
leaflet entitled: The appreciation of the fine arts—an outline of 
a course for college students approved by the committee on educa- 
tion of The American Institute of Architects. Acknowledgment 
is made to Professor Smith for permission to use the material, 
and to Alice L. Felton, of The Metropolitan Museum of Art 
for additional information which has been incorporated. 


DEALERS IN PHOTOGRAPHS AND PRINTS 


Alinari Bros., 8 Via Nazionale, Florence, Italy. 

Anderson, D., Via Salaria, 7a, Rome, Italy. 

Archives Photographiques d’Art et d’Histoire, Palais Royal, 
Paris, France. 

Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, III. 

Braun, Maison Ad. & Cie., 47 West 47th St., New York, 
N. Y. and Dornach, Mt. Rhin, France. 

British Museum, London, England. 

Brogi, Giacomo, 1, Via Tornabuoni, Florence, Italy. 

Brown Co., 38 Lovett St., Beverly, Mass. 

Brown-Robertson Co., 8-10 East 49th St., New York, 
Nes 

Bruckmann, Friedrich, Munich, Germany. 

Bullez, J. E., 21 Rue Bonaparte, Paris, France. 

Bureau of University Travel, 11 Boyd Street, Newton, 
Mass. (The University Prints.) 

Chapman, S. H., 1128 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa. 

County Studio, W. A. Call, Monmouth, England. 

Curtis & Cameron, 12 Harcourt St., Boston, Mass. 

Detroit Publishing Company, Detroit, Mich. 

Elson Company, 2A Park St., Boston, Mass. 

Essex Institute, Salem, Mass. 

380 


APPENDIX E 281 


Frith, F., & Co., Reigate, Surrey, England. 

Gaddis & Seif, Winter Palace Building, Luxor, Egypt. 

Giraudon, A., 9 Rue des Beaux Arts, Paris, France. 

Grantz, Else, Templehofer Ufer 32, Berlin, Germany. 

Hanfstaengl, E. F., 153 West 57th St., New York, N. Y. 

Jacobsthal, Prof. Paul, University of Marburg, Marburg, 
Germany. 

Johnson and Hoffmann, Chowringhee, Calcutta, India. 

Kennedy, Prof. Clarence, Smith College, Northampton, 
Mass. . 

Kodak, Cairo, Egypt. 

Lesch, Rudolf, 225 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. 

Librairie de France, 110 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris, 
France. 

Lombardi, Cav. Paolo, Siena, Italy. 

Mansell, W. F., Elfin Works, Teddington, S. W., London, 
England. 

Medici Society of America, 755 Boylston St., Boston, 
Mass. 

Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York, N. Y. 

Moscioni, Romualdo, Via Condetti, 76, Rome, Italy. 

Munder, Norman, T. A., & Co., 109 Market Pl., Baltimore, 
Md. 

Press of the American Institute of Architects, 250 West 
57th St., New York, N. Y. 

Portugal Casuso, Nicholas, Carrera de San Jeronimo, 53, 
Madrid, Spain. 

Smith, Sam, The Minster Shop, 36 Steep Hill, Lincoln, 
England. 

Stoedtner, Dr. Franz, Universitatstr. 3b, Berlin, V. W. F., 
Germany. 

Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London, 
England. 


MAKERS OF OTHER REPRODUCTIONS 


Boston Sculpture Co., Melrose, Mass. Plaster casts. 
British Museum, London, England. Electrotypes of Greek 
coins. 


382 APPENDIX E 


Brucciani, D. & Co., 40 Russell St., W. C., London, Eng- 
land. Plaster casts. 

Caproni, P. P., & Brother, 1914 Washington St., Boston, 
Mass. Plaster casts. 

Chiurazzi & Son, Naples, Italy. Bronzes. 

Chrisiofle et Cie., 56 Rue de Bondy, Paris, France. 
Metalwork. 

Elkington & Co., 15 Middleton St., London, England. 
Metalwork. 

Florentine Art Plaster Co., 2208-12 Chestnut St., Phil- 
adelphia, Pa. Plaster casts. 

Gerber, August, Cologne, Germany. Plaster Casts. 

Gillieron, E., & Fils, Rue Skoufa 43, Athens, Greece. 

Electrotype reproductions, water-color copies and plaster 
casts (colored). . 

Hennecke, Co., Milwaukee, Wisc. Plaster casts. 

Lisio, G., Via dei Fossi 17, Florence, Italy. Antique 
Italian brocade samples. 

Manufattura di signa Societa Industriale, Via Babuino, 
Rome, Italy. 17 Mount St., W., London, England. Plas- 
ler casts. 

Martinelli, Napoleone F., Athens, Greece. Plaster casts. 

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y. Casts 
of Arretine and Egyptian objects. 

Miller, F. W., 121 Angell St., Providence, R. I. Casts of 
Byzantine and mediaeval wortes. 

Ostercamp-Mead Corp’n, 511 Fifth Ave., New Yorks, 
N. Y. Small antique bronzes. 

Roman Bronze Works, 275 Greene St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bronzes. 

Sabatino de Angelis & Son, Naples, Italy. Bronzes. 

Wiurtembergische Metallwarenfabrik, Geislingen Steige, 
Wutrtemberg, Germany. (Also represented by E. Gillieron 
& Fils, Athens). lectrotype reproductions of Mycenean, 
Cretan, Arretine, Roman and Merovingian antiquities. 


Only a few of the more important dealers are included here. 
A complete list would show a very great number of sources, 


4 


APPENDIX E 383 


and to be usable it would have to be well indexed and anno- 
tated. There is no such list in print, but one is in preparation 
by Miss Felton to whom acknowledgment is made above. 

An old but useful List of photograph dealers was compiled 
by Etheldred Abbot and published in 1907 by The Massachu- 
setts Library Club. Copies may be obtained for 15 cents 
from the Public Library, Brookline, Massachusetts. Part 19 
of Modern American library economy as illustrated by the New- 
ark, N. J., Free Public Library (Woodstock, Vermont, The 
Elm Tree Press, 1916)—a compilation by Dana and Gardner— 
includes a list of dealers in pictures and a bibliography of cat- 
alogs and source-lists of pictures and objects. A short list of 
selected prints and photographs has been published by The 
American Federation of Arts, Washington, D. C., under the 
title: A catalog of prints reproducing paintings by old and mod- 
ern masters 


/ 
a APPENDIX F 
DIRECTORIES OF MUSEUMS 
A ist of about one thousand museums with addresses and 


names of officers in charge, was published recently by The 
American Association of Museums: 


Directory of museums: museums of the United States, 
museums of United States possessions. Museum Work, 
March-April 1926, 8: 129-155. | 


The more active museums in this directory may be identi- 
fied by reference to a list of the Institution Members of The 
American Association of Museums of which a revised edition 
is published from time to time and may be had upon applica- 
tion. For fuller information about the character and work 
of individual museums the only general source is a directory 
which is now somewhat obsolete: 


Rea, Paul Marshall. A directory of American museums 
of art, history and science. Bulletin, Buffalo Society of 
Natural Sciences. 1910, 10: 1-360. 


A very complete annotated directory of historical societies, 
published recently, indicates societies which maintain mu- 
seums: 


Handbook of American historical societies. Madison, 


Wisc., Conference of Historical Societies, Committee on 
Handbook, 1926, 81 pp. 7 


384 


/ APPENDIX G 
v GENERAL REFERENCES 


A LARGE part of the fragmentary literature on museum 
practice in this country is contained in two serial publications: 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF Mvu- 
SEUMS. Published annually. 11 volumes: 1907 to I9gI7. 
Include papers, reports and dicussion at annual meetings. 


Museum Work. Published monthly or bimonthly by 
The American Association of Museums. 8 volumes: 1918- 
19 to 1925-26. Contains papers, reports and book reviews. 


An index to these two completed serials has been published 
as No. 2, 1927, of a serial which replaced Museum Work, 
namely: 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF Muv- 
SEUMS. New series. The numbers of this series, of which 
the first appeared in 1926, are monographic. 


The news of the museum field is presented in a newspaper: 


THE Museum News. Published semi-monthly by The 
American Association of Museums. 1924 to date. 


These publications may be obtained from the Association 
which has its headquarters at the Smithsonian Institution, 
Washington, D. C. ‘They should be available for references 
in the library of every museum. 


Another serial publication in English which is important is: 


THE MusEuMS JOURNAL. The organ of the Museums 
Association of Great Britain. 


385 


386 APPENDIX G 


The following are good general works: 


Dana, John Cotton. The new museum. Woodstock, 
Vermont, The Elm Tree Press, 1917, 52 pp. 

—_—_—_—_——.. The gloom of the museum (No. 2 of The 4 
new museum series), Woodstock, Vermont, The Elm Tree 


Press, 1917, 45 pp. 


A plan for a new museum. The kind 
of a museum it will profit a city to maintain. (No. 4 of 
The new museum series), Woodstock, Vermont, The Elm 
Tree Press, 1920, 57 pp. 

Clifford, William. Bibliography of museums and muse- 
ology. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1923, 
98 pp. 

Connolly, Louise. The educational value of museums. 
Newark, N. J. Newark Museum Association, 1914, 73 pp. 

Gilman, Benjamin Ives. Museum ideals of purpose and 
method. Cambridge, Riverside Press, 1918, 434 pp. 
(Houghton Mifflin Co.) 

Goode, George Brown. The principles of museum admin- 
istration. U.S. National Museum, Report, 1897, Pt. 2: 
195-240. 

Jackson, Margaret Talbot. Themuseum. A manual for 
the housing and care of art collections. New York, Long- 
mans, Green and Co., 1917, 280 pp. q 


SS ae ee a ee ee 


INDEX 


A 


Accession, authority for, 51, 121 
committee, 51, 335, 340 
number, 184 
policy, 121, 129 
records, 174, 176 
Accessories, group, 235 
Accounts, 88 
endowment, IOI 
expenditure, 90 
income, 88 
numbering, 95 
plant, 99 
Acquisition, See Accession 
Acquisitions, exhibiting new, 132 
Act of incorporation, 331 
Activities, museum, 241 
for children, 246 
Addressing machine, 110 
Administration, See Aims, Business, 
By-laws, Charter, Contract, 
Constitution, Director, Ethics, 
Finance, Organization, Staff, 
Trustees, Women’s Auxiliary 
Admission, 243 
Adult education, 260 
Advertising, See Publicity 
Aims, educational work, II, 241, 
246, 260 
_ exhibits, 132, 209 
museum, 10, 330, 333 
research, II, 29I 
Air conditioning, 319 
Alcoves, temporary, 318 
Alterations, building, 116 
Amateurs, collectors, 171, 292 
curators, 3I 
Amendments, 338, 342 
American Association of Museums, 
60, 106, 114, 384, 385 
American Library Association, 267 
Annual meeting, 335 
Annual report, 104, 269 
Appointment, See Director, Cura- 
tors, Assistants 
Appropriations, public, 21, 57, 344 
Archeological survey, 292 
Archeology, as subject matter, 7, 


147 
Architect, 297 


Architecture, 310 
Archives, 264 
Art, as subject matter, 6, 161 
Articles of incorporation, 329 
Artificial light, 318 
Assessed valuation, basis of sup- 
port, 59 
Assistants, 32 
appointment, 335 


Authority, administrative, See 
Duties 

for purchases, 121, Also see 
Budget 


Attendance, at hours, 253 
at museum, 243 
Auxiliary, women’s, 38 


B 


Backgrounds, group, 235 
Backs, case, 205 
Balance sheet, 105 
Balsam cement, 219 
Bases, case, 199, 205 

object, 220 
Benefactors, See Members 
Bequests, 61, 62 

form of, 81 
Bibliographies, See References 
Biology, as subject matter, 168 
Board of trustees, See Trustees 
Bonds, fidelity, 341 

municipal, 58, 75 
Book classification, 265 
Book selection, 265 
Book purchase, 69 
Bookkeeping, 88 
Borrowing funds, 66, 79 

by city, 58, 75 
Borrowing objects, See Lending 

collection, Loan, School-service 
Botany, as subject matter, 168 
Boys as assistants, 32 
Branch exhibits, 42, 135 
Branch museums, 138 
Budget, 55, 102 
Building, 115, 297, 301, 311; Also 
see Plant 

Building committee, 51 
Bulletin board, 278 
Bulletins, 270 


389 


390 INDEX 


Burlap, case lining, 217 
wall covering, 317 
Business-office methods, 109 
Business standards, 47 
Buying objects, 121 
authority for, 51, 102 
By-laws, 26, 332 


C 


Campaigns, 61, 281 
Canada balsam cement, 219 
Canned lectures, 143, 262 
Capital, 58 
Capital outlay, 68, 75 
Cards, membership, 36 
Care of collections, 195 
Case, carrying, 146 
construction, 203 
exhibition, 198, 215 
group, 236 
lining, 217 
manufacturers, 198 
Also see Screens 
Casts, See Reproductions 
Catalog, exhibits, See Gallery leaflet 
lending collection, 145 
objects, 174, 177 
Catalog number, 184 
Cement, for installing, 219 
Center cases, 198, 200, 216 
Certificate of incorporation, 329 
Certificates, for study, 250 
Charter, city, 77 
museum, 329 
Checks, bank, 93 
Children, activities for, 246 
as members, 36 
as docents, 254 
Circulating collection, 140, 156, 164 
City, appropriations, 57 
relation to, 22, Also see Contract 
support, 21, 157, 344, 350 
City museums, 21, 78 
Classes, adults, 261 
children, 249, 255 
membership, 34 
Classification, art material, 163 
history material, 151 
lending collection, 144 
library, 265 
science material, 167 
Clubs, 249 
Collecting, 171 
amateur, 292 


Collections, art, 162 
history, 150 
‘ housing, 195 
science, 167 
Also see Study collections 
Color, in exhibits, 213 
Committees, campaign, 284 
trustees, 25, 51, 335, 340 
Community chest, 62 
Community trust, 81, 86 
Compressed cork, 220 
Conditions, gift, 123 
loan, 124 
Congoleum, 236 
Constitution, 26, 332 
Construction, building, 310 
case, 203 
Consulting director, 28, 73 
Containers for loans, 141, 146 
Contract, city, 76, 343 
gift, 12450 
loan, 126 
Contributions, 61, 338 
Cooperation, historical societies, 41 
industry; 242 
libraries, 42 
museums, 42, 73, 134, 203, 324 
newspapers, 277 
organizations, 40, 42 
schools, 255, 286 
Cork, compressed, 220 
Corporate members, 22 
Corporation, 22, 61 
charter, 329 
Correspondence, 109 
Cost, building, 310 
case, 202 
operating, See Expenditure 
Councils, educational, 42 
County, appropriations, 57, 350 
Courses, 249, 261 
Credit, for students, 250 | 
Culture-history, as subject matter, 
148 
Culture material, 6, 7 
Curators, 28, 30 
appointment, 335 
duties, 53 
Current expense, 68, 70 
funds available for, 58 


D 


Days, open, 244 
Dealers in reproductions, 380 
Decimal classification, 265 


ee ne ye eT ee ee ee 


Pe ee ee ee Pa eee me em 


INDEX 


Decks, case, 204 
Decoration, building, 317 
Department records, 178, 180 
Departments, assignment of objects 
to, 128 
of collections, 128 
of exhibits, 134 
staff, 31 
Deposit, conditions, 124 
contract, 126 
Depreciation, 69, 99 
Dermestes, 196 
Design, in exhibits, 211 
Director, 27 
appointment, 335 
consulting, 73 
duties, 52, 54, 340 
honorary, 17 
salary, 72 
Directories, 384 
Disbursements register, 89 
Disbursing, 55 
Discussion, class, 247, 261 
Disposal record, 180, 182 
Dividends, 64 
Docent, 242, 254 
Donor record, 179, 181 
Donors, See Members 
Dues, 34, 56, 338 
Duties, committees, 51, 340 
director, 52, 54, 340 
officers, 50, 339 
staff, 53 
trustees, 26, 49, 52 


E 


Economic science, as 
matter, 169 
Education, adult, 260 
Educational aims, II, 
260 
Educational program, 241 
Equipment, 77, 117, 317, Also see, 
Cases, Housing, Study 
Collections 
accounting for, 99 
Election, members, 36, 336 
officers, 25, 334, 338 
trustees, 22, 24, 49, 334, 337 
Endowment, 79 
accounting for, IOI 
cash book, 93 
income on, 64 
Establishing museums, 15 
Ethics, 48 


subject 


241, 246, 


391 


Ethnology, as subject matter, 7, 147 
Examinations, 250 
Excursions, 249 
Executive Committee, 51, 335, 340 
Exhibiting everything, 127 
Exhibition cases, 198 
Exhibition screens, 207 
Exhibits, art, 163 
character and purpose, 131, 262 
history, 156 
science, 167 
Also See Groups, Installation, 
Labels 
Exhibits in libraries, 42 
Ex-officio trustees, 24, 60, 334 
Expansion, building, 307, 314 
Expenditure, 68 
Extra-mural exhibits, 135 
Evening opening, 244 


F 


False case backs, 200, 217 
Fastenings, case, 204 
Fatigue, museum, 216 
Fees, 65 
Field of museums, 6, 128 
Field work, 171 
accounting for, 69 
amateur, 292 
Files, correspondence, 109 
Finance, administration of, 54, 341 
Also see, Accounts, Endowment, | 
Expenditure, Income, Plant, 
Public support 
Financial statistics, 106 
Finding list, 179 
Fire protection, 320 
Floor cases, 198 
Floor screens, 208, 216 
Floors, 305, 318 
Follow-up system, 109 
Foreground, group, 234 
Format, labels, 229 
publications, 271 
Forms, bequest, 81 
accounting, 98 
gift, 81, 125 
loan, 126 
statistical, 107 
Fossils, mounting, 220 
Founding, museum, 15 
Frames, case, 203 
Fumigation, 196 
Future of museums, 323 


392 


G 


Gallery leaflet, 224 
Games, museum, 247 
General labels, 228 
General museums, 4, 129 
Geology, as subject matter, 168 
Getting started, 112 
Gift, conditions, 123 
contract, 125 
Gifts, money, 61 
objects, 121, 339 
other property, 35, 339 
Glass, for cases, 205 
for shelves, 218 
Grants, See City, 
Contributions 
Group discussion, 247, 257 
Groupings, 238 
Groups, 232 
Guards, 33 
Guides, See Docent, Gallery leaflet 


H 


relation to; 


Habitat groups, 232 
Hanger, Shrosbree, 219 
Heating; 319 
Historical society, relation to, 17, 
41, 264 
Historical survey, 292 
History, as subject matter, 6, 147, 
150 
History of museums, 21 
Hobby clubs, 249 
Homosote, 196 
Honoraria, 73 
Honorary curators, 31, 335 
director, I7 
members, 36, 334 
Housing collections, 195 
Hours, opening, 243 
instruction, 246 


I 
Illustrative material, See Lending 
collection 
Income, 56 


securing initial, 17, 56, 113 
Income tax exemption, 61 
Incorporation, 22, 329 
Index (record), 179, 180 
Industrial art, as subject matter, 

161 
service to, 242 


INDEX 


Industry, as subject matter, 8 
149 

Information service, 243 
Illumination, See Lighting 
Insect pests, 196 
Installation, objects, 209 

labels, 230 
Installation without shelves, 218 
Instruction, adults, 260 

children, 246 

school classes, 257 
Instructor, 242, 258 
Insurance of property, 73 
Insurance, endowment policies, 83 
Interest, 64 
Interior decoration, 317 
Interpretation, See Instruction 
Inventory of plant, 97, 106 
Investments, accounting for, 97, 

IOI 

income on, 64 

selection of, 83 
Journal, 97 
Junior docents, 254 
Junior members, 36 


L 
Labeling, collections, 185; exhibits, 
223 | 
Land, 299 q 


Lantern, lending, 262 
Lantern slides, 142 
Laws, affecting support, 59, 281, 


350 
Leaflet publications, 271 
Leaflets, gallery, 224 
Lease, See Contract 
Lecture fees, 65 
Lectures, 262 
canned, 143, 262 
Ledger, 94, 96 
Legislation, See Laws 
Lending collection, 140, 256 
Library, classification, 265 
exhibits for, 42, 135 
in museum, 264 
reading courses, 261 
relation to, 17, 300 
Library of Congress classification, 
265 
Life membership, 34, 339 
Lighting, building, 308, 316, 318 
cases, 207 : 
groups, 237 
Lining, case, 217 


INDEX 


List of investments, 97 
Living exhibits, 136, 169 
Loan, conditions, 124 
contract, 126 
Also see Lending collection 
Loan exhibits, art, 164 
Loan record, 180, 181 
Local scope, art,164 
history, 150 
science, 167 
Location file, 179 
Location, museum, 299 


M 


MacLean case, 201 
Maintenance, 73 
Manufacturers of cases, 198 
McCabe molding, 318 
Meetings, 25, 335 
Members, campaign for, 287 

cards for, 36 

classes, 34, 334 

corporate, 22 

dues, 34, 82 

election, 336 
Membership ledger, 96 
Memorandum paper, 110 
Memorials, 19, 81, 123 
Metal, for cases, 201, 202 
Mimeograph, I11 
Mineralogy, as subject matter, 168 
Miniature groups, 232 
Misspent effort, 243 
Mounting, See Preparation 
Motion picture film, 144 
Municipal museums, 41, 78 
Municipal support, 157 
Museum fatigue, 216 
Museum games, 247 
Museum hours, 247 
Museums, kinds, 6 

directories, 384 


N 
Name, 19 
Natural history, as subject matter, 
7, 166 


Natural light, 308, 316 
Nature trails, 137, 250 
Newspaper files, 264 
Newspaper publicity, 276 
Nomination, See Election 
Notes, for endowment, 82 


393 


Number, accession, 174 
catalog, 175 

Numbering, accounts, 95 
objects, 184 


O 


Object index, 179 

Objectives, See Aims 

Office methods, 109 

Officers, 25 
duties, 50, 339 
election, 25, 334, 337 

Operating expenditure, 68, 70 
accounting for, 98 

Original art works, 162, 163 

Organization, 21, Also see, By-laws, 
Charter, Constitution, Director, 
Staff, Trustees 

Organizing, 15 

Outdoor exhibits, 136 

Outlook, 323 

Ownership of property, 75, 77, 78, 

Also see Municipal museums 


rE 


Paleontology, as subject matter, 16% 
Park sites, 300 
Partitions, temporary, 318 
Patrons, See Members 
Pay-days, 244 
Period room, 237 
Permanent exhibits, 133 
art, 163 
history, 156 
science, 167 
Personnel relations, 47 
Pests, insect, 196 
Petty cash, 96 
Photographs, for lending collection, 
142, 145, Also see Re- 
productions 
Picture hanging, 222, 318 
Picture molding, 318 
Pictures, for lending, 142, 145 
Placement, cases, 215 
objects, 216 
Plans, building, 301, 311 
Plant, 69, 75 
accounting for, 99 
inventory, 97 
Plumbing, 320 
Policing, 33 
Politics, 60 
Powers, See Duties 


394 INDEX 


Preparation, 187 
President, 25 


duties, 50, 52, 54, 340 


Print collection, 163, Also see 


Reproductions 
Printing, 271 
Privileges, membership, 36 
Program of work, 112 
Projects, special, 62 
Promoting museums, I5 
Prospectus, 112 
Public library, See Library 
Public museum, 21 
Public support, 21, 57, 344, 350 
Publications, 269, 293 
Publicity, 261, 
Campaigns 
Purchasing objects, 121 
authority for, 51, 102 
Purposes, See Aims 


Q 


Quarters, temporary, 115 
permanent, See Building 
Quorum, 336 


R 


Racks, storage, 196 
Radiators, 319 
Real estate investments, 84 
Receipts register, 88 
Recent gifts, exhibiting, 132 
Records, financial, 88 

collections, 173 

lending material, 145 
Recreational aim, II 
References, general, 385 

list of xiii 
Reference library, 264 
Registrar, 30, 173 
Registration, 173 
Rejections, 122, Also see Disposal 
Release, newspaper, 278 
Relics, 149 
Reorganization, 17 
Replacement costs, 69 
Reports, annual, 104, 269 

monthly, 104 

of surveys, 293 
Reprinting, 27 

from newspaper, 273 
Reproductions of art works, 161 

dealers in, 380 


276, Also see 


Research, 291 
Restoration, 187 
Restricted gifts, 62 
Revenue, See Income 
Rooms, in building, 303 


Ss 


Salaries, 72 
Sales, as source of income, 65 
from temporary exhibits, 165 
from permanent collections, 124 
Schedules, in report, 105 
School-service, 140, 255 
Science, as subject matter, 7, 166 
Scope of collections, 129 
art, 162 
history, 147 
science, 166 
Scouts, 41, 249 
Screens, exhibition, 207 
Secretary, 25 
duties, 50, 339 
Securities, 84 
Selling, See Sales 
Service, public, 113, 241 
Services, personal 72 
Sets, lending, I41, 143 
Shelf supports, 206 
Shelves, case, 218 
installation without, 218 
Shop costs, 68 
Shrosbree hanger, 219, 230 
Site, 299 
Slides, lantern, 142 
Small groups, 232 
Small museums, defined, 3 
Social affairs, 39, 243 
Source list, 179 
Sources of collections, 121 
Special projects, 62 
Specimen index, 179 
Staff, 30 
appointment, 335 
duties, 53 
Standard case sizes, 200 
Statistics, financial, 106 
Statutes, See Laws 
Storage, 127, 195 
Story hour, 247 
Study collections, 127 
art, 162 
history, 150 
housing, 195 
science, 167 


INDEX 


Subject matter, See Field, various 
subject headings: Archeology, 
Art, History, etc. 

Subsidy, See Income 

Sulphur mount, 220 

Sunday opening, 244 

Surveys, 292 

Swinging screens, 207 


2B 


Table cases, 198, 200, 216 
Tags, specimen, 184 
label, 224 
Talks, 247 
Tax appropriations, 58 
Taxes, exemption from, 61, 74 
Taxidermy, See Preparation 
Teachers, aid to, See School- 
service 
Teaching, See Instruction 
Technique, See Preparation 
Temporary exhibits, 133 
art, 164 
history, 159 
science, 169 
Temporary number, See Accession 
number 
Temporary quarters, I15 
Terms, office, 25, 334 
trusteeship, 24, 334 
Trails, nature, 137 
Trailside museums, 137 
Transportation of classes, 259 
Traveling exhibits, 134, 164 
Trays, storage, 195 
Treasurer, 25 
duties, 54, 340 
Treasurer’s report, 104 
Trust company, 86 
Trustees, 24, 334 
duties, 49, 339 
election, 22, 24, 49, 334, 337 
removal, 338 


Type, 272 


Type specimens, labeling, 186 


U 
Umbrella plates, 185 


V 


Vacancy in office, 334 
Vehisote, 204 
Ventilation, cases, 206 
groups, 236 
rooms, 319 
Vertical installation, 218 
Vice-president, 25 
duties, 50, 339 
Visitors, 244 
Volunteers, 30 
collectors, 292 
curators, 3I 
Votes, campaigns for, 283 
Vouchers, 94 
Voucher checks, 94 


WwW 


Wall cases, 198, 200, 215 
Wall installation, 221 
Wall screens, 207 
Walls, treatment of, 317 
Wasted effort, 243 
Wax-and-balsam, 219, 230 
Weeks, museum, 287 
Windows, 309 
Women as directors, 29 
Women’s auxiliary, 38 
Wood, cases, 201, 203 
shelves, 218 


Z 


Zoology, as subject matter, 168 


395 


a 


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